political economy-第3章

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le　system　altogether　from　the　name　of　Colbert。　It　was　a　system　invented　by　trading　subjects；　not　by　citizens；　it　was　a　system　adopted　by　all　the　ministers　of　absolute　governments；　when　they　happened　to　take　the　trouble　of　thinking　on　finance；　and　Colbert　had　no　other　share　in　the　matter　than　that　of　having　followed　it　without　reforming　it。　　　　　After　long　treating　commerce　with　haughty　contempt；　governments　had　at　length　discovered　in　it　one　of　the　most　abundant　sources　of　national　wealth。　All　the　great　fortunes　in　their　states　did　not　indeed　belong　exclusively　to　merchants；　but　when；　overtaken　by　sudden　necessity；　they　wished　to　levy　large　sums　at　once；　merchants　alone　could　supply　them。　Proprietors　of　land　might　possess　immense　revenues；　manufacturers　might　cause　immense　labours　to　be　executed；　but　neither　of　them　could　dispose　of　any　more　than　their　income　or　annual　produce。　In　a　case　of　need　merchants　alone　offered　their　whole　fortune　to　the　government。　As　their　capital　was　entirely　represented　by　commodities　already　prepared　for　consumption；　by　merchandise　destined　for　the　immediate　use　of　the　market　to　which　it　had　been　carried；　they　could　sell　it　at　an　hour's　warning；　and　realise　the　required　sum　with　smaller　loss　than　any　other　class　of　citizens。　Merchants　therefore　found　means　to　make　themselves　be　listened　to；　because　they　had　in　some　sort　the　command　of　all　the　money　in　the　state；　and　were　at　the　same　time　nearly　independent　of　authority　…　being　able；　in　general；　to　hide　from　the　attacks　of　despotism　a　property　of　unknown　amount；　and　transport　it；　with　their　persons；　to　a　foreign　country；　at　a　moment's　notice。　　　　　Governments　would　gladly　have　increased　the　merchant's　profit；　on　condition　of　obtaining　a　share　of　it。　Imagining　that　nothing　more　was　necessary　than　to　second　each　other's　views；　they　offered　him　force　to　support　industry。　and　since　the　advantage　of　the　merchant　consists　in　selling　dear　and　buying　cheap；　they　thought　it　would　be　an　effectual　protection　to　commerce；　if　the　means　were　afforded　of　selling　still　dearer　and　buying　still　cheaper。　The　merchants　whom　they　consulted　eagerly　grasped　at　this　proposal；　and　thus　was　founded　the　mercantile　system。　Antonio　de　Leyva；　Fernando　de　Gonnzago；　and　the　Duke　of　Alva；　viceroys　of　Charles　V　and　his　descendants　…　the　rapacious　inventors　of　so　many　monopolies　…　had　no　other　notion　of　political　economy。　But　when　it　was　attempted　to　reduce　this　methodical　robbery　of　consumers　into　a　system；　when　deliberative　assemblies　were　occupied　with　it；　when　Colbert　consulted　corporations；　when　the　people　at　last　began　to　perceive　the　true　state　of　the　case；　it　became　necessary　to　find　out　a　more　honourable　basis　for　such　transactions；　it　became　necessary　not　only　to　study　the　advantage　of　financiers　and　merchants；　but　also　that　of　the　nation：　for　the　calculations　of　self…interest　cannot　show　themselves　in　open　day；　and　the　first　benefit　of　publicity　is　to　impose　silence　on　base　sentiments。　　　　　Under　these　circumstances　the　mercantile　system　was　moulded　into　a　plausible　form；　and　doubtless　it　must　have　been　plausible；　since；　even　till　our　own　times；　it　continued　to　seduce　the　greater　part　of　practical　men　employed　in　trade　and　finance。　Wealth；　said　those　earliest　economists；　is　money：　the　two　words　were　received　into　universal　use　as　almost　entirely　synonymous；　no　one　dreamed　of　questioning　the　identity　of　money　and　wealth。　Money；　they　said；　disposes　of　men's　labour　and　of　all　its　fruits。　It　is　money　which　produces　those　fruits；　it　is　by　means　of　money　that　industry　continues　in　a　nation；　to　its　influence　each　individual　owes　his　subsistence　and　the　continuation　of　his　life。　Money　is　especially　necessary　in　the　relation　of　one　state　to　another。　It　supports　war　and　forms　the　strength　of　armies。　The　state　which　has　it；　rules　over　that　which　has　it　not。　The　whole　science　of　political　economy　ought；　therefore；　to　have　for　its　object　the　increase　of　money　in　a　nation。　But　the　money　possessed　by　a　nation　cannot　be　augmented　in　quantity；　except　by　the　working　of　mines；　if　the　nation　has　any；　or　by　foreign　trade；　if　it　has　none。　All　the　exchanges　carried　on　within　a　country；　all　the　purchases　and　sales　which　take　place　among　Englishmen；　for　instance；　do　not　increase　the　specie　contained　within　the　shores　of　England　by　a　single　penny。　Hence　it　is　necessary　to　And　means　of　importing　money　from　other　countries；　and　trade　alone　can　do　this　by　selling　much　to　foreigners　and　buying　little　from　them。　For　in　the　same　way　as　each　merchant　in　settling　with　his　correspondent；　sees　at　the　year's　end　whether　he　has　sold　more　than　he　has　bought；　and　Ands　himself　accordingly　creditor　or　debtor　by　a　balance　account　which　must　be　paid　in　money；　so　likewise　a　nation；　by　summing　up　all　its　purchases　and　all　its　sales　with　each　nation；　or　with　all　together；　would　find　itself　every　year　creditor　or　debtor　by　a　commercial　balance　which　must　be　paid　in　money。　If　the　country　pay　this　balance；　it　will　constantly　grow　poorer；　if　it　receive　the　balance；　it　will　constantly　grow　richer。　　　　　For　a　century；　the　mercantile　system　was　universally　adopted　by　cabinets；　universally　favoured　by　traders　and　chambers　of　commerce；　universally　expounded　by　writers；　as　if　it　had　been　proved　by　the　most　unexceptionable　demonstration；　no　one　deeming　it　worth　while　to　establish　it　by　new　proofs；　when；　after　the　middle　of　the　eighteenth　century；　Quesnay　opposed　to　it　his　Tableau　Economique；　afterwards　expounded　by　Mirabeau　and　the　Abbe　de　Riviere；　enlarged　by　Dupont　de　Nemours；　and　adopted　by　a　numerous　sect　which　arose　in　France；　under　the　name　of　Economists。　In　Italy　too　this　sect　gained　some　distinguished　partisans。　Its　followers　have　written　more　about　the　science　than　those　of　any　other　sect；　yet　they　have　admitted　Quesnay's　principles　with　such　blind　confidence；　and　maintained　them　with　such　implicit　fidelity；　that　one　is　at　a　loss　to　discover　any　difference　of　principle；　or　any　progress　of　ideas　in　their　several　productions。　　　　　Thus　Quesnay　founded　a　second　system　in　political　economy；　still　named　the　territorial　system；　or　more　precisely　the　system　of　the　economists。　He　begins　by　asserting　that　gold　and　silver；　the　signs　of　wealth；　the　means　of　exchange；　the　price　of　all　commodities；　do　not　themselves　constitute　the　wealth　of　states；　and　that　no　judgment　can　be　formed　concerning　the　prosperity　of　a　nation；　from　the　abundance　of　its　precious　metals。　He　next　proceeds　to　survey　the　different　classes　of　men；　all　of　whom；　occupied　in　gaining　money；　and　causing　wealth　to　circulate；　even　when　acquiring　it　for　themselves；　are　not；　according　to　him；　occupied　with　any　thing　besides　exchange。　He　endeavours　to　distinguish　the　classes　possessed　of　a　creative　power；　it　is　amongst　them　that　wealth　must　originate；　all　the　transactions　of　commerce　appearing　to　be　nothing　else　but　the　transmission　of　that　wealth　from　hand　to　hand。　　　　　The　merchant　who　carries　the　productions　of　both　hemispheres　from　one　continent　to　the　other；　and　on　returning　to　the　ports　of　his　own　country；　obtains；　at　the　sale　of　his　cargo；　a　sum　double　of　that　with　which　he　began　his　voyage；　does　not；　after　all；　appear；　in　the　eyes　of　Quesnay；　to　have　performed　any　thing　bu