political economy-第35章

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　they　never　had　existed。　　　　　We　have　seen　that　the　demand　for　labour；　the　cause　of　production；　must　be　proportional　to　revenue　which　supports　consumption；　that　this　revenue；　in　its　turn；　originates　in　the　national　wealth；　which　wealth　is　formed　and　augmented　by　labour。　Thus；　in　political　economy；　all　things　are　linked　together；　we　move　constantly　in　a　circle；　since　each　effect　becomes　a　cause　in　its　turn。　Yet　all　things　are　progressive；　provided　that　each　movement　is　adjusted　to　the　rest；　but　all　stops；　all　retrogrades；　whenever　one　of　the　movements　which　ought　to　be　combined　is　disordered。　According　to　the　natural　march　of　things；　an　augmentation　of　wealth　will　produce　an　augmentation　of　revenue；　from　this　will　arise　an　increase　of　consumption；　next　an　increase　of　labour　for　reproduction；　and　therewith　of　population；　and；　finally；　this　new　labour　will；　in　its　turn；　increase　the　national　wealth。　But　if；　by　unreasonable　measures；　any　one　of　those　operations　is　hastened　without　regard　to　all　the　rest；　the　whole　system　is　deranged；　and　the　poor　are　weighed　down　with　suffering；　instead　of　the　happiness　which　was　anticipated　for　them。　　　　　The　object　of　society　is　not　fulfilled；　so　long　as　the　country　occupied　by　this　society；　presents　means　of　supporting　a　new　population；　of　enabling　it　to　live　in　happiness　and　abundance；　whilst　yet　those　means　are　not　resorted　to。　The　multiplication　of　happiness　over　the　earth；　is　the　object　of　Providence；　it　is　stamped　in　all　his　works；　and　the　duty　of　men　in　their　human　society　is　to　co…operate　in　it。　　　　　The　government　which；　by　oppression　of　its　subjects；　by　its　contempt　for　justice　and　order；　by　the　shackles　it　puts　on　agriculture　and　industry；　condemns　fertile　counties　to　be　deserts；　sins　not　against　its　own　subjects　alone；　its　tyranny　is　a　crime　against　human　society；　on　the　whole　of　which　it　inflicts　suffering；　it　weakens　its　rights　over　the　country　occupied　by　it；　and　as　it　troubles　the　enjoyments　of　all　other　states；　it　gives　to　all　others　the　right　of　controlling　it。　All　men　are　mutually　necessary　to　each　other。　Europe　has　a　double　need　of　the　subsistence　which　it　might　procure　from　Barbary；　if　this　magnificent　shore　of　Africa　were　given　back　to　civilization；　and　from　the　consumers　we　should　soon　find　there。　The　institution　of　property　is　the　result　of　social　conventions。　In　a　society　subjected　to　laws　and　a　regulating　government；　the　interest　of　each　may　be　implicitly　relied　on　for　producing　the　advantage　of　all；　because　the　aberrations　of　this　private　interest　are；　in　every　case　of　need；　limited　by　public　authority。　But；　in　the　great　human　society　formed　among　independent　nations；　there　is　no　law　or　general　government　to　repress　the　passions　of　each　sovereign：　besides；　the　interest　of　those　sovereigns　is　not　necessarily　conformable　to　that　of　their　subjects；　or；　to　speak　more　correctly；　the　one　is　contrary　to　the　other；　whenever　the　object　of　the　rulers　is　to　maintain　their　tyranny。　Thus　respect　for　the　pretended　right　of　properly　claimed　by　each　government　over　its　territory；　is　not　referrible　to　the　right　of　private　property；　and；　besides；　it　cannot　be　reciprocal。　The　same　circumstances　which　cause　a　tyrannical　government　to　impede　its　own　civilization；　render　it　equally　incapable　of　respecting　that　of　its　neighbours；　and　submitting　to　the　laws　of　nations。　　　　　But　whilst　more　than　three　quarters　of　the　habitable　globe　are；　by　the　faults　of　their　governments；　deprived　of　the　inhabitants　they　should　support；　we；　at　the　present　day；　in　almost　the　whole　of　Europe；　experience　the　opposite　calamity；　that　of　not　being　able　to　maintain　a　superabundant　population；　which　surpasses　the　proportion　of　labour　required；　and　which；　before　dying　of　poverty；　will　diffuse　its　sufferings　over　the　whole　class　of　such　as　live　by　the　labour　of　their　hands。　For　our　part；　we　owe　this　calamity　to　the　imprudent　zeal　of　our　governments。　With　us；　religious　instruction；　legislation；　social　organization；　every　thing　has　tended　to　produce　a　population；　the　existence　of　which　was　not　provided　for　beforehand。　The　labour　was　not　adjusted　to　the　number　of　men；　and；　frequently；　the　same　zeal　with　which　it　was　attempted　to　multiply　the　number　of　births；　was　afterwards　employed；　in　all　arts；　to　diminish　the　required　number　of　hands。　The　proportion　which　should　subsist　in　the　progress　of　the　different　departments　of　society　has　been　broken；　and　the　suffering　has　become　universal。　　　　　Mr　Malthus；　the　first　writer　who　awakened　public　attention　to　this　calamity　under　which　nations　have　long　suffered；　without　knowing　it；　whilst　he　gave　an　alarm　to　legislators；　did　not　reach　the　true　principles　which　he　seemed　on　the　road　to　find。　On　reading　his　writings；　one　is　stuck　at　once　with　an　essential　error　in　his　reasoning；　and　with　the　importance　of　the　facts　to　which　he　appeals。　Such　confusion；　in　a　matter　to　which　the　happiness　of　man　is　attached；　may　produce　the　most　fatal　consequences。　By　rigorously　applying　principles　deficient　in　accuracy；　the　most　grievous　errors　may　be　committed；　and　if；　on　the　other　hand；　the　error　is　discovered；　there　is　a　risk　of　simultaneously　rejecting　both　the　observations　and　the　precepts。　　　　　Mr　Malthus　established　as　a　principle　that　the　population　of　every　country　is　limited　by　the　quantity　of　subsistence　which　that　country　can　furnish。　This　proposition　is　true　only　when　applied　to　the　whole　terrestial　globe；　or　to　a　country　which　has　no　possibility　of　trade；　in　all　other　cases；　foreign　trade　modifies　it；　and；　farther；　which　is　more　important；　this　proposition　is　but　abstractly　true；　…　true　in　a　manner　inapplicable　to　political　economy。　Population　has　never　reached　the　limit　of　subsistence；　and　probably　it　never　will。　Long　before　the　population　can　be　arrested　by　the　inability　of　the　country　to　produce　more　food；　it　is　arrested　by　the　inability　of　the　population　to　purchase　that　food；　or　to　labour　in　producing　it。　　　　　The　whole　population　of　a　state；　says　Mr　Malthus；　may　be　doubled　every　twenty…five　years；　it　would　thus　follow　a　geometrical　progression：　but　the　labour　employed　to　meliorate　a　soil；　already　in　culture；　can　add　to　its　produce　nothing　but　quantities　continually　decreasing。　Admitting　that；　during　the　first　twenty…five　years；　the　produce　of　land　has　been　doubled；　during　the　second　we　shall　scarcely　succeed　in　compelling　it　to　produce　a　half　more；　then　a　third　more；　then　a　fourth。　Thus　the　progress　of　subsistence　will　not　follow　the　geometrical；　but　the　arithmetical　progression；　and；　in　the　course　of　two　centuries；　whilst　the　population　increases；　as　the　numbers；　1。　2；　4；　8；　16；　32；　64；　128；　subsistence　will　increase　not　faster　than　the　numbers；　1；　2；　3；　4；　5；　6；　7；　8。　　　　　This　reasoning；　which　serves　as　a　basis　to　the　system　of　Mr。　Malthus；　and　to　which　he　incessantly　appeals；　through　the　whole　course　of　his　book；　is　completely　sophistical。　It　opposes　the　possible　increase　of　the　human　population；　considered　abstractly；　and　without　regarding　circumstances；　to　the　positive　increase　of　animals　and　vegetables　in　a　confined　place；　under　circumstances　more　and　more　unfavourable。　They　ought　not　thus　to　be　compared。　Abstractly；　the　multiplication　of　food　follows　a　geometrical　progression；　no　less　t