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ravages until the following yeardid not break out till August in England； where it advanced so gradually； that a period of three months elapsed before it reached London。 The northern kingdoms were attacked by it in 1349； Sweden； indeed； not until November of that year； almost two years after its eruption in Avignon。 Poland received the plague in 1349； probably from Germany； if not from the northern countries； but in Russia it did not make its appearance until 1351； more than three years after it had broken out in Constantinople。 Instead of advancing in a north…westerly direction from Tauris and from the Caspian Sea； it had thus made the great circuit of the Black Sea； by way of Constantinople； Southern and Central Europe； England； the northern kingdoms； and Poland； before it reached the Russian territories； a phenomenon which has not again occurred with respect to more recent pestilences originating in Asia。
Whether any difference existed between the indigenous plague； excited by the influence of the atmosphere； and that which was imported by contagion； can no longer be ascertained from facts； for the contemporaries； who in general were not competent to make accurate researches of this kind； have left no data on the subject。 A milder and a more malignant form certainly existed； and the former was not always derived from the latter； as is to be supposed from this circumstancethat the spitting of blood； the infallible diagnostic of the latter； on the first breaking out of the plague； is not similarly mentioned in all the reports； and it is therefore probable that the milder form belonged to the native plaguethe more malignant； to that introduced by contagion。 Contagion was； however； in itself； only one of many causes which gave rise to the Black Plague。
This disease was a consequence of violent commotions in the earth's organismif any disease of cosmical origin can be so considered。 One spring set a thousand others in motion for the annihilation of living beings； transient or permanent； of mediate or immediate effect。 The most powerful of all was contagion； for in the most distant countries； which had scarcely yet heard the echo of the first concussion； the people fell a sacrifice to organic poisonthe untimely offspring of vital energies thrown into violent commotion。
CHAPTER IVMORTALITY
We have no certain measure by which to estimate the ravages of the Black Plague； if numerical statements were wanted； as in modern times。 Let us go back for a moment to the fourteenth century。 The people were yet but little civilised。 The Church had indeed subdued them； but they all suffered from the ill consequences of their original rudeness。 The dominion of the law was not yet confirmed。 Sovereigns had everywhere to combat powerful enemies to internal tranquillity and security。 The cities were fortresses for their own defence。 Marauders encamped on the roads。 The husbandman was a feudal slave； without possessions of his own。 Rudeness was general； humanity as yet unknown to the people。 Witches and heretics were burned alive。 Gentle rulers were contemned as weak； wild passions； severity and cruelty； everywhere predominated。 Human life was little regarded。 Governments concerned not themselves about the numbers of their subjects； for whose welfare it was incumbent on them to provide。 Thus； the first requisite for estimating the loss of human life； namely； a knowledge of the amount of the population； is altogether wanting； and； moreover； the traditional statements of the amount of this loss are so vague； that from this source likewise there is only room for probable conjecture。
Cairo lost daily； when the plague was raging with its greatest violence； from 10；000 to 15；000； being as many as； in modern times； great plagues have carried off during their whole course。 In China； more than thirteen millions are said to have died； and this is in correspondence with the certainly exaggerated accounts from the rest of Asia。 India was depopulated。 Tartary； the Tartar kingdom of Kaptschak； Mesopotamia； Syria； Armenia； were covered with dead bodiesthe Kurds fled in vain to the mountains。 In Caramania and Caesarea none were left alive。 On the roadsin the campsin the caravansariesunburied bodies alone were seen； and a few cities only （Arabian historians name Maarael…Nooman； Schisur； and Harem） remained； in an unaccountable manner； free。 In Aleppo； 500 died daily； 22；000 people； and most of the animals； were carried off in Gaza； within six weeks。 Cyprus lost almost all its inhabitants； and ships without crews were often seen in the Mediterranean； as afterwards in the North Sea； driving about； and spreading the plague wherever they went on shore。 It was reported to Pope Clement； at Avignon； that throughout the East； probably with the exception of China； 23；840；000 people had fallen victims to the plague。 Considering the occurrences of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries； we might； on first view； suspect the accuracy of this statement。 How （it might be asked） could such great wars have been carried onsuch powerful efforts have been made； how could the Greek Empire； only a hundred years later； have been overthrown； if the people really had been so utterly destroyed？
This account is nevertheless rendered credible by the ascertained fact； that the palaces of princes are less accessible to contagious diseases than the dwellings of the multitude； and that in places of importance； the influx from those districts which have suffered least； soon repairs even the heaviest losses。 We must remember； also； that we do not gather much from mere numbers without an intimate knowledge of the state of society。 We will therefore confine ourselves to exhibiting some of the more credible accounts relative to European cities。
In Florence there died of the Black Plague60；000 In Venice100；000 In Marseilles； in one month16；000 In Siena70；000 In Paris50；000 In St。 Denys14；000 In Avignon60；000 In Strasburg16；000 In Lubeck9；000 In Basle14；000 In Erfurt； at least16；000 In Weimar5；000 In Limburg2；500 In London； at least100；000 In Norwich51；100
To which may be added …
Franciscan Friars in German124；434 Minorites in Italy30；000
This short catalogue might； by a laborious and uncertain calculation； deduced from other sources； be easily further multiplied； but would still fail to give a true picture of the depopulation which took place。 Lubeck； at that time the Venice of the North； which could no longer contain the multitudes that flocked to it； was thrown into such consternation on the eruption of the plague； that the citizens destroyed themselves as if in frenzy。
Merchants whose earnings and possessions were unbounded； coldly and willingly renounced their earthly goods。 They carried their treasures to monasteries and churches； and laid them at the foot of the altar； but gold had no charms for the monks； for it brought them death。 They shut their gates； yet； still it was cast to them over the convent walls。 People would brook no impediment to the last pious work to which they were driven by despair。 When the plague ceased； men thought they were still wandering among the dead； so appalling was the livid aspect of the surv