a history of science-2-第35章

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ake　his　life；　had　induced　the　astrologer　to　foretell　the　event　in　order　that　the　prince　might　have　timely　warning　and　so　elude　the　conspirators。　The　cause　of　the　decline　of　astrology　was　the　growing　prevalence　of　the　new　spirit　of　experimental　science。　Doubtless　the　most　direct　blow　was　dealt　by　the　Copernican　theory。　So　soon　as　this　was　established；　the　recognition　of　the　earth's　subordinate　place　in　the　universe　must　have　made　it　difficult　for　astronomers　to　be　longer　deceived　by　such　coincidences　as　had　sufficed　to　convince　the　observers　of　a　more　credulous　generation。　Tycho　Brahe　was；　perhaps；　the　last　astronomer　of　prominence　who　was　a　conscientious　practiser　of　the　art　of　the　astrologer。

VII。　FROM　PARACELSUS　TO　HARVEY　PARACELSUS　In　the　year　1526　there　appeared　a　new　lecturer　on　the　platform　at　the　University　at　Basela　small；　beardless；　effeminate…looking　personwho　had　already　inflamed　all　Christendom　with　his　peculiar　philosophy；　his　revolutionary　methods　of　treating　diseases；　and　his　unparalleled　success　in　curing　them。　A　man　who　was　to　be　remembered　in　after…time　by　some　as　the　father　of　modern　chemistry　and　the　founder　of　modern　medicine；　by　others　as　madman；　charlatan；　impostor；　and　by　still　others　as　a　combination　of　all　these。　This　soft…cheeked；　effeminate；　woman…hating　man；　whose　very　sex　has　been　questioned；　was　Theophrastus　von　Hohenheim；　better　known　as　Paracelsus　（1493…1541）。　To　appreciate　his　work；　something　must　be　known　of　the　life　of　the　man。　He　was　born　near　Maria…Einsiedeln；　in　Switzerland；　the　son　of　a　poor　physician　of　the　place。　He　began　the　study　of　medicine　under　the　instruction　of　his　father；　and　later　on　came　under　the　instruction　of　several　learned　churchmen。　At　the　age　of　sixteen　he　entered　the　University　of　Basel；　but；　soon　becoming　disgusted　with　the　philosophical　teachings　of　the　time；　he　quitted　the　scholarly　world　of　dogmas　and　theories　and　went　to　live　among　the　miners　in　the　Tyrol；　in　order　that　he　might　study　nature　and　men　at　first　hand。　Ordinary　methods　of　study　were　thrown　aside；　and　he　devoted　his　time　to　personal　observationthe　only　true　means　of　gaining　useful　knowledge；　as　he　preached　and　practised　ever　after。　Here　he　became　familiar　with　the　art　of　mining；　learned　the　physical　properties　of　minerals；　ores；　and　metals；　and　acquired　some　knowledge　of　mineral　waters。　More　important　still；　he　came　in　contact　with　such　diseases；　wounds；　and　injuries　as　miners　are　subject　to；　and　he　tried　his　hand　at　the　practical　treatment　of　these　conditions；　untrammelled　by　the　traditions　of　a　profession　in　which　his　training　had　been　so　scant。　Having　acquired　some　empirical　skill　in　treating　diseases；　Paracelsus　set　out　wandering　from　place　to　place　all　over　Europe；　gathering　practical　information　as　he　went；　and　learning　more　and　more　of　the　medicinal　virtues　of　plants　and　minerals。　His　wanderings　covered　a　period　of　about　ten　years；　at　the　end　of　which　time　he　returned　to　Basel；　where　he　was　soon　invited　to　give　a　course　of　lectures　in　the　university。　These　lectures　were　revolutionary　in　two　respectsthey　were　given　in　German　instead　of　time…honored　Latin；　and　they　were　based　upon　personal　experience　rather　than　upon　the　works　of　such　writers　as　Galen　and　Avicenna。　Indeed；　the　iconoclastic　teacher　spoke　with　open　disparagement　of　these　revered　masters；　and　openly　upbraided　his　fellow…practitioners　for　following　their　tenets。　Naturally　such　teaching　raised　a　storm　of　opposition　among　the　older　physicians；　but　for　a　time　the　unparalleled　success　of　Paracelsus　in　curing　diseases　more　than　offset　his　unpopularity。　Gradually；　however；　his　bitter　tongue　and　his　coarse　personality　rendered　him　so　unpopular；　even　among　his　patients；　that；　finally；　his　liberty　and　life　being　jeopardized；　he　was　obliged　to　flee　from　Basel；　and　became　a　wanderer。　He　lived　for　brief　periods　in　Colmar；　Nuremberg；　Appenzell；　Zurich；　Pfeffers；　Augsburg；　and　several　other　cities；　until　finally　at　Salzburg　his　eventful　life　came　to　a　close　in　1541。　His　enemies　said　that　he　had　died　in　a　tavern　from　the　effects　of　a　protracted　debauch；　his　supporters　maintained　that　he　had　been　murdered　at　the　instigation　of　rival　physicians　and　apothecaries。　But　the　effects　of　his　teachings　had　taken　firm　root；　and　continued　to　spread　after　his　death。　He　had　shown　the　fallibility　of　many　of　the　teachings　of　the　hitherto　standard　methods　of　treating　diseases；　and　had　demonstrated　the　advantages　of　independent　reasoning　based　on　observation。　In　his　Magicum　he　gives　his　reasons　for　breaking　with　tradition。　〃I　did；〃　he　says；　〃embrace　at　the　beginning　these　doctrines；　as　my　adversaries　（followers　of　Galen）　have　done；　but　since　I　saw　that　from　their　procedures　nothing　resulted　but　death；　murder；　stranglings；　anchylosed　limbs；　paralysis；　and　so　forth；　that　they　held　most　diseases　incurable。　。　。　。　therefore　have　I　quitted　this　wretched　art；　and　sought　for　truth　in　any　other　direction。　I　asked　myself　if　there　were　no　such　thing　as　a　teacher　in　medicine；　where　could　I　learn　this　art　best？　Nowhere　better　than　the　open　book　of　nature；　written　with　God's　own　finger。〃　We　shall　see；　however；　that　this　〃book　of　nature〃　taught　Paracelsus　some　very　strange　lessons。　Modesty　was　not　one　of　these。　〃Now　at　this　time；〃　he　declares；　〃I；　Theophrastus　Paracelsus；　Bombast；　Monarch　of　the　Arcana；　was　endowed　by　God　with　special　gifts　for　this　end；　that　every　searcher　after　this　supreme　philosopher's　work　may　be　forced　to　imitate　and　to　follow　me；　be　he　Italian；　Pole；　Gaul；　German；　or　whatsoever　or　whosoever　he　be。　Come　hither　after　me；　all　ye　philosophers；　astronomers；　and　spagirists。　。　。　。　I　will　show　and　open　to　you　。。。　this　corporeal　regeneration。〃＇1＇　Paracelsus　based　his　medical　teachings　on　four　〃pillars〃　philosophy；　astronomy；　alchemy；　and　virtue　of　the　physiciana　strange…enough　equipment　surely；　and　yet；　properly　interpreted；　not　quite　so　anomalous　as　it　seems　at　first　blush。　Philosophy　was　the　〃gate　of　medicine；〃　whereby　the　physician　entered　rightly　upon　the　true　course　of　learning；　astronomy；　the　study　of　the　stars；　was　all…important　because　〃they　（the　stars）　caused　disease　by　their　exhalations；　as；　for　instance；　the　sun　by　excessive　heat〃；　alchemy；　as　he　interpreted　it；　meant　the　improvement　of　natural　substances　for　man's　benefit；　while　virtue　in　the　physician　was　necessary　since　〃only　the　virtuous　are　permitted　to　penetrate　into　the　innermost　nature　of　man　and　the　universe。〃　All　his　writings　aim　to　promote　progress　in　medicine；　and　to　hold　before　the　physician　a　grand　ideal　of　his　profession。　In　this　his　views　are　wide　and　far…reaching；　based　on　the　relationship　which　man　bears　to　nature　as　a　whole；　but　in　his　sweeping　condemnations　he　not　only　rejected　Galenic　therapeutics　and　Galenic　anatomy；　but　condemned　dissections　of　any　kind。　He　laid　the　cause　of　all　diseases　at　the　door　of　the　three　mystic　elementssalt；　sulphur；　and　mercury。　In　health　he　supposed　these　to　be　mingled　in　the　body　so　as　to　be　indistinguishable；　a　slight　separation　of　them　produced　disease；　and　death　he　supposed　to　be　the　result　of　their　complete　separation。　The　spiritual　agencies　of　diseases；　he　said；　had　nothing　to　do　with　either　angels　or　devils；　but　were　the　spirits　of　human　beings。　He　be