a history of science-2-第44章

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nd　Protestant　churches　alike。　The　spirit　of　philosophical　inquiry　he　had　engendered；　however；　lived　on；　and　is　largely　responsible　for　modern　philosophy。　In　many　ways　the　life　and　works　of　Leibnitz　remind　us　of　Bacon　rather　than　Descartes。　His　life　was　spent　in　filling　high　political　positions；　and　his　philosophical　and　scientific　writings　were　by…paths　of　his　fertile　mind。　He　was　a　theoretical　rather　than　a　practical　scientist；　his　contributions　to　science　being　in　the　nature　of　philosophical　reasonings　rather　than　practical　demonstrations。　Had　he　been　able　to　withdraw　from　public　life　and　devote　himself　to　science　alone；　as　Descartes　did；　he　would　undoubtedly　have　proved　himself　equally　great　as　a　practical　worker。　But　during　the　time　of　his　greatest　activity　in　philosophical　fields；　between　the　years　1690　and　1716；　he　was　all　the　time　performing　extraordinary　active　duties　in　entirely　foreign　fields。　His　work　may　be　regarded；　perhaps；　as　doing　for　Germany　in　particular　what　Bacon's　did　for　England　and　the　rest　of　the　world　in　general。　Only　a　comparatively　small　part　of　his　philosophical　writings　concern　us　here。　According　to　his　theory　of　the　ultimate　elements　of　the　universe；　the　entire　universe　is　composed　of　individual　centres；　or　monads。　To　these　monads　he　ascribed　numberless　qualities　by　which　every　phase　of　nature　may　be　accounted。　They　were　supposed　by　him　to　be　percipient；　self…acting　beings；　not　under　arbitrary　control　of　the　deity；　and　yet　God　himself　was　the　original　monad　from　which　all　the　rest　are　generated。　With　this　conception　as　a　basis；　Leibnitz　deduced　his　doctrine　of　pre…established　harmony；　whereby　the　numerous　independent　substances　composing　the　world　are　made　to　form　one　universe。　He　believed　that　by　virtue　of　an　inward　energy　monads　develop　themselves　spontaneously；　each　being　independent　of　every　other。　In　short；　each　monad　is　a　kind　of　deity　in　itselfa　microcosm　representing　all　the　great　features　of　the　macrocosm。　It　would　be　impossible　clearly　to　estimate　the　precise　value　of　the　stimulative　influence　of　these　philosophers　upon　the　scientific　thought　of　their　time。　There　was　one　way；　however；　in　which　their　influence　was　made　very　tangiblenamely；　in　the　incentive　they　gave　to　the　foundation　of　scientific　societies。

SCIENTIFIC　SOCIETIES　At　the　present　time；　when　the　elements　of　time　and　distance　are　practically　eliminated　in　the　propagation　of　news；　and　when　cheap　printing　has　minimized　the　difficulties　of　publishing　scientific　discoveries；　it　is　difficult　to　understand　the　isolated　position　of　the　scientific　investigation　of　the　ages　that　preceded　steam　and　electricity。　Shut　off　from　the　world　and　completely　out　of　touch　with　fellow…laborers　perhaps　only　a　few　miles　away；　the　investigators　were　naturally　seriously　handicapped；　and　inventions　and　discoveries　were　not　made　with　the　same　rapidity　that　they　would　undoubtedly　have　been　had　the　same　men　been　receiving　daily；　weekly；　or　monthly　communications　from　fellow…laborers　all　over　the　world；　as　they　do　to…day。　Neither　did　they　have　the　advantage　of　public　or　semi…public　laboratories；　where　they　were　brought　into　contact　with　other　men；　from　whom　to　gather　fresh　trains　of　thought　and　receive　the　stimulus　of　their　successes　or　failures。　In　the　natural　course　of　events；　however；　neighbors　who　were　interested　in　somewhat　similar　pursuits；　not　of　the　character　of　the　rivalry　of　trade　or　commerce；　would　meet　more　or　less　frequently　and　discuss　their　progress。　The　mutual　advantages　of　such　intercourse　would　be　at　once　appreciated；　and　it　would　be　but　a　short　step　from　the　casual　meeting　of　two　neighborly　scientists　to　the　establishment　of　〃societies；〃　meeting　at　fixed　times；　and　composed　of　members　living　within　reasonable　travelling　distance。　There　would；　perhaps；　be　the　weekly　or　monthly　meetings　of　men　in　a　limited　area；　and　as　the　natural　outgrowth　of　these　little　local　societies；　with　frequent　meetings；　would　come　the　formation　of　larger　societies；　meeting　less　often；　where　members　travelled　a　considerable　distance　to　attend。　And；　finally；　with　increased　facilities　for　communication　and　travel；　the　great　international　societies　of　to…day　would　be　producedthe　natural　outcome　of　the　neighborly　meetings　of　the　primitive　mediaeval　investigators。　In　Italy；　at　about　the　time　of　Galileo；　several　small　societies　were　formed。　One　of　the　most　important　of　these　was　the　Lyncean　Society；　founded　about　the　year　1611；　Galileo　himself　being　a　member。　This　society　was　succeeded　by　the　Accademia　del　Cimento；　at　Florence；　in　1657；　which　for　a　time　flourished；　with　such　a　famous　scientist　as　Torricelli　as　one　of　its　members。　In　England　an　impetus　seems　to　have　been　given　by　Sir　Francis　Bacon's　writings　in　criticism　and　censure　of　the　systern　of　teaching　in　colleges。　It　is　supposed　that　his　suggestions　as　to　what　should　be　the　aims　of　a　scientific　society　led　eventually　to　the　establishment　of　the　Royal　Society。　He　pointed　out　how　little　had　really　been　accomplished　by　the　existing　institutions　of　learning　in　advancing　science；　and　asserted　that　little　good　could　ever　come　from　them　while　their　methods　of　teaching　remained　unchanged。　He　contended　that　the　system　which　made　the　lectures　and　exercises　of　such　a　nature　that　no　deviation　from　the　established　routine　could　be　thought　of　was　pernicious。　But　he　showed　that　if　any　teacher　had　the　temerity　to　turn　from　the　traditional　paths；　the　daring　pioneer　was　likely　to　find　insurmountable　obstacles　placed　in　the　way　of　his　advancement。　The　studies　were　〃imprisoned〃　within　the　limits　of　a　certain　set　of　authors；　and　originality　in　thought　or　teaching　was　to　be　neither　contemplated　nor　tolerated。　The　words　of　Bacon；　given　in　strong　and　unsparing　terms　of　censure　and　condemnation；　but　nevertheless　with　perfect　justification；　soon　bore　fruit。　As　early　as　the　year　1645　a　small　company　of　scientists　had　been　in　the　habit　of　meeting　at　some　place　in　London　to　discuss　philosophical　and　scientific　subjects　for　mental　advancement。　In　1648；　owing　to　the　political　disturbances　of　the　time；　some　of　the　members　of　these　meetings　removed　to　Oxford；　among　them　Boyle；　Wallis；　and　Wren；　where　the　meetings　were　continued；　as　were　also　the　meetings　of　those　left　in　London。　In　1662；　however；　when　the　political　situation　bad　become　more　settled；　these　two　bodies　of　men　were　united　under　a　charter　from　Charles　II。；　and　Bacon's　ideas　were　practically　expressed　in　that　learned　body；　the　Royal　Society　of　London。　And　it　matters　little　that　in　some　respects　Bacon's　views　were　not　followed　in　the　practical　workings　of　the　society；　or　that　the　division　of　labor　in　the　early　stages　was　somewhat　different　than　at　present。　The　aim　of　the　society　has　always　been　one　for　the　advancement　of　learning；　and　if　Bacon　himself　could　look　over　its　records；　he　would　surely　have　little　fault　to　find　with　the　aid　it　has　given　in　carrying　out　his　ideas　for　the　promulgation　of　useful　knowledge。　Ten　years　after　the　charter　was　granted　to　the　Royal　Society　of　London；　Lord　Bacon's　words　took　practical　effect　in　Germany；　with　the　result　that　the　Academia　Naturae　Curiosorum　was　founded；　under　the　leadership　of　Professor　J。　C。　Sturm。　The　early　labors　of　this　society　were　de