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； and they will count for a long time to come among the most essential factors that determine the conduct of States。
Even when an idea has undergone the transformations which render it accessible to crowds； it only exerts influence when； by various processes which we shall examine elsewhere； it has entered the domain of the unconscious； when indeed it has become a sentiment； for which much time is required。
For it must not be supposed that merely because the justness of an idea has been proved it can be productive of effective action even on cultivated minds。 This fact may be quickly appreciated by noting how slight is the influence of the clearest demonstration on the majority of men。 Evidence； if it be very plain； may be accepted by an educated person； but the convert will be quickly brought back by his unconscious self to his original conceptions。 See him again after the lapse of a few days and he will put forward afresh his old arguments in exactly the same terms。 He is in reality under the influence of anterior ideas； that have become sentiments； and it is such ideas alone that influence the more recondite motives of our acts and utterances。 It cannot be otherwise in the case of crowds。
When by various processes an idea has ended by penetrating into the minds of crowds； it possesses an irresistible power； and brings about a series of effects； opposition to which is bootless。 The philosophical ideas which resulted in the French Revolution took nearly a century to implant themselves in the mind of the crowd。 Their irresistible force； when once they had taken root； is known。 The striving of an entire nation towards the conquest of social equality； and the realisation of abstract rights and ideal liberties； caused the tottering of all thrones and profoundly disturbed the Western world。 During twenty years the nations were engaged in internecine conflict； and Europe witnessed hecatombs that would have terrified Ghengis Khan and Tamerlane。 The world had never seen on such a scale what may result from the promulgation of an idea。
A long time is necessary for ideas to establish themselves in the minds of crowds； but just as long a time is needed for them to be eradicated。 For this reason crowds； as far as ideas are concerned； are always several generations behind learned men and philosophers。 All statesmen are well aware to…day of the admixture of error contained in the fundamental ideas I referred to a short while back； but as the influence of these ideas is still very powerful they are obliged to govern in accordance with principles in the truth of which they have ceased to believe。
2。 THE REASONING POWER OF CROWDS
It cannot absolutely be said that crowds do not reason and are not to be influenced by reasoning。
However； the arguments they employ and those which are capable of influencing them are； from a logical point of view； of such an inferior kind that it is only by way of analogy that they can be described as reasoning。
The inferior reasoning of crowds is based； just as is reasoning of a high order； on the association of ideas； but between the ideas associated by crowds there are only apparent bonds of analogy or succession。 The mode of reasoning of crowds resembles that of the Esquimaux who； knowing from experience that ice； a transparent body； melts in the mouth； concludes that glass； also a transparent body； should also melt in the mouth； or that of the savage who imagines that by eating the heart of a courageous foe he acquires his bravery； or of the workman who； having been exploited by one employer of labour； immediately concludes that all employers exploit their men。
The characteristics of the reasoning of crowds are the association of dissimilar things possessing a merely apparent connection between each other； and the immediate generalisation of particular cases。 It is arguments of this kind that are always presented to crowds by those who know how to manage them。 They are the only arguments by which crowds are to be influenced。 A chain of logical argumentation is totally incomprehensible to crowds； and for this reason it is permissible to say that they do not reason or that they reason falsely and are not to be influenced by reasoning。 Astonishment is felt at times on reading certain speeches at their weakness； and yet they had an enormous influence on the crowds which listened to them； but it is forgotten that they were intended to persuade collectivities and not to be read by philosophers。 An orator in intimate communication with a crowd can evoke images by which it will be seduced。 If he is successful his object has been attained； and twenty volumes of haranguesalways the outcome of reflectionare not worth the few phrases which appealed to the brains it was required to convince。
It would be superfluous to add that the powerlessness of crowds to reason aright prevents them displaying any trace of the critical spirit； prevents them； that is； from being capable of discerning truth from error； or of forming a precise judgment on any matter。 Judgments accepted by crowds are merely judgments forced upon them and never judgments adopted after discussion。 In regard to this matter the individuals who do not rise above the level of a crowd are numerous。 The ease with which certain opinions obtain general acceptance results more especially from the impossibility experienced by the majority of men of forming an opinion peculiar to themselves and based on reasoning of their own。
3。 THE IMAGINATION OF CROWDS
Just as is the case with respect to persons in whom the reasoning power is absent； the figurative imagination of crowds is very powerful； very active and very susceptible of being keenly impressed。 The images evoked in their mind by a personage； an event； an accident； are almost as lifelike as the reality。 Crowds are to some extent in the position of the sleeper whose reason； suspended for the time being； allows the arousing in his mind of images of extreme intensity which would quickly be dissipated could they be submitted to the action of reflection。 Crowds； being incapable both of reflection and of reasoning； are devoid of the notion of improbability； and it is to be noted that in a general way it is the most improbable things that are the most striking。
This is why it happens that it is always the marvellous and legendary side of events that more specially strike crowds。 When a civilisation is analysed it is seen that； in reality； it is the marvellous and the legendary that are its true supports。 Appearances have always played a much more important part than reality in history； where the unreal is always of greater moment than the real。
Crowds being only capable of thinking in images are only to be impressed by images。 It is only images that terrify or attract them and become motives of action。
For this reason theatrical representations； in which the image is shown in its most clearly visible shape； always have an enormous influence on crowds。 Bread and spectacular shows constituted for the plebeians of ancient Rome the ideal of happiness； and they asked for nothing more。 Throughout the successive ages this ideal has scarcely varied。 Nothing h