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majority of men； in theory accepting this ideal； reject it in practice。 Selfishness leads to self…gratification and pleasure； chastity imposes a burden on desire； and praise and blame are in this instance not powerful enough to control mankind's acts； though powerful enough to influence them。 Wherever social pressure and education influence men and women to conduct which is contrary to the gratification of fundamental desires； it causes an uneasiness； an unhappiness and discomfort upon which Graham Wallas＇1＇ has laid great stress as the balked desire。 The history of man is made up of the struggle of normal instincts； emotions and purposes against the mistaken inhibitions and prohibitions； against mistaken praise and blame； reward and punishment。 Moral and ethical ideals develop institutions； and these often press too heavily upon the life and activities of those who accept them as authoritative。 ＇1＇ See his book 〃The Great Society〃 for a fine discussion of this important matter。
We have spoken as if praise and blame invariably had the same results。 On the contrary； though in general they tend to bring about uniformity and conformity； people vary remarkably from one another in their reaction and the same person is not uniform in his reactions。 The reaction to praise is on the whole an increased happiness and vigor； but of course it may； when undeserved； demoralize the character and lead to a foolish vanity and to inefficiency。 To those whose conscience is highly developed； undeserved praise is painful in that it leads to a feeling that one is deceiving others。 Speaking broadly； this is a rare reaction。 Most people accept praise as their due； just as they attribute success to their merits。＇1＇ The reaction to blame may be anger； if the blame is felt to be undeserved； and there are people of irritable ego who respond in this way to all blame or even the hint of adverse criticism。 The reaction may be humiliation and lowered self…valuation； greatly deenergizing the character and lowering efficiency。 There； again； though this reaction occurs in some degree to all； others are so constituted that all criticism or blame is extremely painful and needs to be tempered with praise and encouragement。 Where blame is felt to be deserved； and where the character is one of striving after betterment； where the ego is neither irritable nor tender； blame is an aid to growth and efficiency。 Many a man flares up under blame who 〃cools〃 down when he sees the justice of the criticism； and changes accordingly。 ＇1＇ A very striking example of this was noticeable during the Great War。 American business men in general； producers； distributors； wholesalers； retailers and speculators all got 〃rich；〃some in extraordinary measure。 Did many of them attribute this to the fact that there was a 〃sellers' market〃 caused by the conditions over which the individual business man had no control？ On the contrary； the overwhelming majority quite complacently attributed the success （which later proved ephemeral） to their own ability。
Therefore； in estimating the character of any individual； one must ask into the nature of his environment； the traits and teachings of the group from which he comes and among whom he has lived。 To understand any one this inquiry must be detailed and reach back into his early life。 Yet not too much stress must be laid upon certain influences in regard to certain qualities。 For example； the average child is not influenced greatly by immorality until near puberty； but dishonesty and bad manners strike at him from early childhood。 The large group； the small group； family life； gang life influence character； but not necessarily in a direct way。 They may act to develop counter… prejudices； for there is no one so bitter against alcoholism as the man whose father was a drunkard and who himself revolts against it。 And there is no one so radical as he whose youth was cramped by too much conservatism。 One might easily classify people according to their reaction to reward； praise； punishment and blame。 This would lead us too far afield。 But at least it is safe to say that in using these factors in directing conduct and character the individual must be studied in a detailed way。 The average child； the average man and woman is found only in statistics。 Everywhere； to deal successfully； one must deal with the individual。 There is a praise…reacting type to whom praise acts as a tonic of incomparable worth； especially when he who administers the praise is respected。 And there are employers； teachers and parents who ignore this fact entirely； who use praise too little or not at all and who rely on adverse criticism。 The hunger for appreciation is a deep； intense need； and many of the problems of life would melt before the proper use of praise。 〃Fine words butter no parsnips〃 means that reward of other kinds is needed to give substance to praise。 Praise only without reward losses its value。 〃I get lots of 'Thank you's' and 'You are a good fellow'；〃 complained a porter to me once； 〃but I cannot bring up my family on them。〃 In their hearts； no matter what they say； the majority of people place highly him who is just in compensation and reward and they want substantial goods。 Many a young scientist of my acquaintance has found that election to learned societies and praise and respect palled on him as compared to a living salary。 Money can be exchanged for vacations； education； books； good times and the opportunity of helping others； but praise has no cash exchange value。 Blame and punishment are intensely individual matters。 Where they are used to correct and to better the character； where they are the tools of the friends and teacher and not the weapons of the enemy； great care must be used。 Character building is an aim； not a technique； and the end has justified the means。 Society has just about come to the conclusion that merely punishing the criminal does not reform him； and merely to punish the child has but part of the effect desired。 In character training punishment and blame must bring PAIN； but that pain must be felt to be deserved （at least in the older child and adult） and not arouse lasting anger or humiliation。 It must teach the error of the ways and prepare the recipient for instruction as to the right away。 Often enough the pain of punishment and blame widens the breach between the teacher and pupil merely because the former has inflicted pain without recompense。 One might put it thus： The pleasure of praise and reward must energize； the pain of blame and punishment。 must teach； else teacher and society have misused these social tools。 〃Very well；〃 I hear some readers say； 〃is conscience to be dismissed so shortly？ Have not men dared to do right in the face of a world that blamed and punished； have they not stood without praise or reward or the fellowship of others for the actions their conscience dictated？〃 Yes； indeed。 What； then； is conscience？ For the common thought of the world it is an inward mentor placed by God within the bosom of man to guide him； to goad him； even； into choosing right and avoiding wrong。 Where the conception of conscience is not quite so literal and direct it is held to be an immanent something of innate origin。 Whatever