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Fosca； he quietly and steadily devoted himself to his cherished
studies； but he continued to study more than books or inanimate
nature。 He was neither a bookworm nor a pedant。 On his various
missions he met and discoursed with churchmen and statesmen
concerned in the greatest transactions of his time； notably at
Mantua with Oliva； secretary of one of the greatest ecclesiastics
at the Council of Trent； at Milan with Cardinal Borromeo； by far
the noblest of all who sat in that assemblage during its eighteen
years； in Rome and elsewhere with Arnauld Ferrier； who had been
French Ambassador at the Council； Cardinal Severina； head of the
Inquisition； Castagna； afterward Pope Urban VII。； and Cardinal
Bellarmine； afterward Sarpi's strongest and noblest opponent。
Nor was this all。 He was not content with books or conversations；
steadily he went on collecting； collating； and testing original
documents bearing upon the great events of his time。 The result
of all this the world was to see later。
He had arrived at middle life and won wide recognition as a
scholar； scientific investigator； and jurist； when there came the
supreme moment of a struggle which had involved Europe for
centuries；a struggle interesting not only the Italy and Europe
of those days； but universal humanity for all time。
During the period following the fall of the Roman Empire of the
West there had been evolved the temporal power of the Roman
Bishop。 It had many vicissitudes。 Sometimes； as in the days of
St。 Leo and St。 Gregory； it based its claims upon noble
assertions of right and justice； and sometimes； as in the hands
of pontiffs like Innocent VIII。 and Paul V。； it sought to force
its way by fanaticism。 Sometimes it strengthened its authority by
real services to humanity； and sometimes by such monstrous frauds
as the Forged Decretals。 Sometimes； as under Popes like Gregory
VII。 and Innocent III。； it laid claim to the mastership of the
world； and sometimes； as with the majority of the pontiffs during
the two centuries before the Reformation； it became mainly the
appanage of a party or faction or family。
Throughout all this history； there appeared in the Church two
great currents of efficient thought。 On one side had been
developed a theocratic theory； giving the papacy a power supreme
in temporal as well as in spiritual matters throughout the world。
Leaders in this during the Middle Ages were St。 Thomas Aquinas
and the Dominicans； leaders in Sarpi's days were the Jesuits；
represented especially in the treatises of Bellarmine at Rome and
in the speeches of Laynez at the Council of Trent。＇1＇
＇1＇ This has been admirably shown by N。 R。 F。 Brown in his
Taylorian Lecture； pages 229…234； in volume for 1889…99。
But another theory； hostile to the despotism of the Church over
the State； had been developed through the Middle Ages and the
Renaissance；it had been strengthened mainly by the utterances
of such men as Dante； aegidio Colonna； John of Paris； Ockham；
Marsilio of Padua； and Laurentius Valla。 Sarpi ranged himself
with the latter of these forces。 Though deeply religious； he
recognized the God…given right of earthly governments to
discharge their duties independent of church control。
Among the many centres of this struggle was Venice。 She was
splendidly religiousas religion was then understood。 She was
made so by her whole environment。 From the beginning she had been
a seafaring power； and seafaring men； from their constant wrestle
with dangers ill understood； are prone to seek and find
supernatural forces。 Nor was this all。 Later； when she had become
rich； powerful； luxurious； licentious； and refractory to the
priesthood； her most powerful citizens felt a need of atoning for
their many sins by splendid religious foundations。 So her people
came to live in an atmosphere of religious observance； and the
bloom and fruitage of their religious hopes and fears are seen in
the whole history of Venetian art；from the rude sculptures of
Torcello and the naive mosaics of San Marco to the glowing
altarpieces and ceilings of John Bellini； Titian； and Tintoretto
and the illuminations of the Grimani Psalter。 No class in Venice
rose above this environment。 Doges and Senators were as
susceptible to it as were the humblest fishermen on the Lido。 In
every one of those glorious frescoes in the corridors and halls
of the Ducal Palace which commemorate the victories of the
Republic； the triumphant Doge or Admiral or General is seen on
his knees making acknowledgment of the divine assistance。 On
every Venetian sequin； from the days when Venice was a power
throughout the earth to that fatal year when the young Bonaparte
tossed the Republic over to the House of Austria； the Doge；
crowned and robed； kneels humbly before the Saviour； the Virgin；
or St。 Mark。 In that vast Hall of the Five Hundred； the most
sumptuous room in the world； there is spread above the heads of
the Doge and Senators and Councilors； as an incentive to the
discharge of their duties on earth； a representation of the
blessed in Heaven。
From highest to lowest； the Venetians lived； moved； and had their
being in this religious environment； and； had their Republic been
loosely governed； its external policy would have been largely
swayed by this all…pervading religious feeling； and would have
become the plaything of the Roman Court。 But a democracy has
never been maintained save by the delegation of great powers to
its chosen leaders。 It was the remark of one of the foremost
American Democrats of the nineteenth century； a man who received
the highest honors which his party could bestow； that the
Constitution of the United States was made； not to promote
Democracy； but to check it。 This statement is true； and it is as
true of the Venetian Constitution as of the American。＇1＇
＇1＇ See Horatio Seymour's noted article in the North American
Review。
But while both the republics recognized the necessity of curbing
Democracy； the difference between the means employed was
world…wide。 The founders of the American Republic gave vast
powers and responsibilities to a president and unheard…of
authority to a supreme court； in the Venetian Republic the Doge
was gradually stripped of power； but there was evolved the
mysterious and unlimited authority of the Senate and Council of
Ten。
In these sat the foremost Venetians； thoroughly imbued with the
religious spirit of their time； but； religious as they were； they