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ponded by placing the reconstruction of the three states in the hands of the President； but with the proviso that each state must ratify the Fifteenth Amendment。 Grant thereupon fixed a time for voting in each state and directed that in Virginia and Mississippi the disfranchising clauses be submitted separately。 As a result； the constitutions were ratified but proscription was voted down。 The radicals secured control of Mississippi and Texas； but a conservative combination carried Virginia and thus came near keeping the state out of the Union。 Finally； during the early months of 1870 the three states were readmitted。
With respect to Georgia a peculiar condition of affairs existed。 In June 1868； Georgia had been readmitted with the first of the reconstructed States。 The state legislature at once expelled the twenty…seven Negro members； on the ground that the recent legislation and the state constitution gave the Negroes the right to vote but not to hold office。 Congress； which had already admitted the Georgia representatives； refused to receive the senators and turned the state back to military control。 In 1869…70； Georgia was again reconstructed after a drastic purging of the legislature by the military commander； the reseating of the Negro members； and the ratification of both the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments。 The state was readmitted to representation in July 1870； after the failure of a strong effort to extend for two years the carpetbag government of the state。
Upon the last states to pass under the radical yoke； heavier conditions were imposed than upon the earlier ones。 Not only were they required to ratify the Fifteenth Amendment； but the 〃fundamental conditions〃 embraced； in addition to the prohibition against future change of the suffrage； a requirement that the Negroes should never be deprived of school and office…holding rights。
The congressional plan of reconstruction had thus been carried through by able leaders in the face of the opposition of a united white South； nearly half the North； the President； the Supreme Court； and in the beginning a majority of Congress。 This success was due to the poor leadership of the conservatives and to the ability and solidarity of the radicals led by Stevens and Sumner。 The radicals had a definite program； the moderates had not。 The object of the radicals was to secure the supremacy in the South by the aid of the Negroes and exclusion of whites。 Was this policy politically wise？ It was at least temporarily successful。 The choice offered by the radicals seemed to lie between military rule for an indefinite period and Negro suffrage； and since most Americans found military rule distasteful； they preferred to try Negro suffrage。 But； after all； Negro suffrage had to be supported by military rule； and in the end both failed completely。
CHAPTER VIII。 THE UNION LEAGUE OF AMERICA
The elections of 1867…68 showed that the Negroes were well organized under the control of the radical Republican leaders and that their former masters had none of the influence over the blacks in political matters which had been feared by some Northern friends of the Negro and had been hoped for by such Southern leaders as Governor Patton and General Hampton。 Before 1865 the discipline of slavery； the influence of the master's family； and of the Southern church had sufficed to control the blacks。 But after emancipation they looked to the Federal soldiers and Union officials as the givers of freedom and the guardians of the future。
From the Union soldiers； especially the Negro troops； from the Northern teachers； the missionaries and the organizers of Negro churches； from the Northern officials and traveling politicians； the Negroes learned that their interests were not those of the whites。 The attitude of the average white in the South often confirmed this growing estrangement。 It was difficult even for the white leaders to explain the riots at Memphis and New Orleans。 And those who sincerely wished well for the Negro and who desired to control him for the good of both races could not possibly assure him that he was fit for the suffrage。 For even Patton and Hampton must tell him that they knew better than he and that he should follow their advice。
The appeal made to freedmen by the Northern leaders was in every way more forceful； because it bad behind it the prestige of victory in war and for the future it could promise anything。 Until 1867； the principal agency in bringing about the separation of the races had been the Freedmen's Bureau which； with its authority； its courts； its rations； clothes； and its 〃forty acres and a mule；〃 did effective work in breaking down the influence of the master。 But to understand fully the almost absolute control exercised over the blacks in 1867…68 by alien adventurers； one must examine the workings of an oath…bound society known as the Union or Loyal League。 It was this order； dominated by a few radical whites； which organized； disciplined； and controlled the ignorant Negro masses and paralyzed the influence of the conservative whites。
The Union League of America had its origin in Ohio in the fall of 1862； when the outlook for the Union cause was gloomy。 The moderate policies of the Lincoln Administration had alienated those in favor of extreme measures； the Confederates had won military successes in the field； the Democrats had made some gains in the elections； the Copperheads* were actively opposed to the Washington Government； the Knights of the Golden Circle were organizing to resist the continuance of the war； and the Emancipation Proclamation had chilled the loyalty of many Union men； which was everywhere at a low ebb； especially in the Northern cities。 It was to counteract these depressing influences that the Union League movement was begun among those who were associated in the work of the United States Sanitary Commission。 Observing the threatening state of public opinion； members of this organization proposed that 〃loyalty be organized； consolidated and made effective。〃
* See 〃Abraham Lincoln and the Union〃； by Nathaniel W。 Stephenson （in 〃The Chronicles of America〃）； pp。 156…7； 234…5。
The first organization was made by eleven men in Cleveland； Ohio； in November 1862。 The Philadelphia Union League was organized a month later； and in January 1863； the New York Union League followed。 The members were pledged to uncompromising and unconditional loyalty to the Union； to complete subordination of political views to this loyalty； and to the repudiation of any belief in state rights。 The other large cities followed the example of Philadelphia and New York； and soon Leagues； connected in a loose federation； were formed all through the North。 They were social as well as political in their character and assumed as their task the stimulation and direction of loyal Union opinion。
As the Union armies proceeded to occupy the South； the Union League sent its agents among the disaffected Southern people。 Its agents cared for Negro refugees in the contraband camps and in the North。 In such work the League cooperated with the various Freedmen's Aid Societies； the Department of Negro Affairs； and later with the Freedmen's Bureau。 Part of the wo