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a as being the more destitute from the fact of their unwillingness to attend mixed schools。〃
* To administer the fund bequeathed by George Peabody of Massachusetts to promote education in the Southern States。 See 〃The New South〃； by Holland Thompson （in 〃The Chronicles of America〃）。
As was to be expected； the whites criticized the attitude of the school officials； disapproved of the attempts made in the schools to teach the children radical ideas； and objected to the contents of the history texts and the 〃Freedmen's Readers。〃 A white school board in Mississippi； by advertising for a Democratic teacher for a Negro school； drew the fire of a radical editor who inquired： 〃What is the motive by which this call for a 'competent Democratic teacher' is prompted？ The most damning that has ever moved the heart of man。 It is to use the vote and action of a human being as a means by which to enslave him。 The treachery and villainy of these rebels stands without parallel in the history of men。〃
A Negro politician has left this account of a radical recitation in a Florida Negro school：
After finishing the arithmetic lesson they must next go through the catechism：
〃Who is the 'Publican Government of the State of Florida？〃 Answer： 〃Governor Starns。〃
〃Who made him Governor？〃 Answer： 〃The colored people。〃
〃Who is trying to get him out of his seat？〃 Answer： 〃The Democrats； Conover； and some white and black Liberal Republicans。〃
〃What should the colored people do with the men who is trying to get Governor Starns out of his seat？〃 Answer： 〃They should kill them。〃 。 。 。 。
This was done that the patrons； some of whom could not read； would be impressed by the expressions of their children； and would be ready to put any one to death who would come out into the country and say anything against Governor Starns。
The native white teachers soon dropped out of Negro schools； and those from the North met with the same social persecution as the white church workers。 The White League and Ku Klux Klan drove off obnoxious teachers； whipped some； burned Negro schoolhouses； and in various other ways manifested the reaction which was rousing the whites against Negro schools。
The several agencies working for Negro education gave some training to hundreds of thousands of blacks； but the whites asserted that； like the church work； it was based on a wrong spirit and resulted in evil as well as in good。 Free schools failed in reconstruction because of the dishonesty or incompetence of the authorities and because of the unsettled race question。 It was not until the turn of the century that the white schools were again as good as they had been before 1861。 After the reconstruction native whites as teachers of Negro schools were impossible in most places。 The hostile feelings of the whites resulted and still result in a limitation of Negro schools。 The best thing for Negro schools that came out of reconstruction was Armstrong's Hampton Institute program； which； however； was quite opposed to the spirit of reconstruction education。
CHAPTER X。 CARPETBAG AND NEGRO RULE
The Southern States reconstructed by Congress were subject for periods of varying length to governments designed by radical Northerners and imposed by elements thrown to the surface in the upheaval of Southern society。 Georgia； Virginia； and North Carolina each had a brief experience with these governments； other States escaped after four or five years； while Louisiana； South Carolina； and Florida were not delivered from this domination until 1876。 The states which contained large numbers of Negroes had； on the whole； the worst experience。 Here the officials were ignorant or corrupt； frauds upon the public were the rule； not the exception； and all of the reconstruction governments were so conducted that they could secure no support from the respectable elements of the electorate。
The fundamental cause of the failure of these governments was the character of the new ruling class。 Every state； except perhaps Virginia； was under the control of a few able leaders from the North generally called carpetbaggers and of a few native white radicals contemptuously designated scalawags。 These were kept in power by Negro voters； to some seven hundred thousand of whom the ballot had been given by the reconstruction acts。 The adoption of the Fifteenth Amendment in March 1870； brought the total in the former slave states to 931；000； with about seventy…five thousand more Negroes in the North。 The Negro voters were most numerous； comparatively； in Louisiana； Mississippi； South Carolina； Alabama； and Georgia。 There were a few thousand carpetbaggers in each State； with； at first； a much larger number of scalawags。 The latter； who were former Unionists； former Whigs； Confederate deserters； and a few unscrupulous politicians； were most numerous in Virginia； North Carolina； Texas； Arkansas； and Tennessee。 The better class； however； rapidly left the radical party as the character of the new regime became evident； taking with them whatever claims the party had to respectability； education； political experience； and property。
The conservatives； hopelessly reduced by the operation of disfranchising laws； were at first not well organized； nor were they at any time as well led as in antebellum days。 In 1868； about one hundred thousand of them were forbidden to vote and about two hundred thousand were disqualified from holding office。 The abstention policy of 1867…68 resulted in an almost complete withdrawal of the influence of the conservatives for the two years； 1868…70。 As a class they were regarded by the dominant party in state and nation as dangerous and untrustworthy and were persecuted in such irritating ways that many became indifferent to the appeals of civil duty。 They formed a solid but almost despairing opposition in the black districts of Mississippi； Louisiana； Alabama； and South Carolina。 For the leaders the price of amnesty was conversion to radicalism； but this price few would pay。
The new state governments possessed certain characteristics in common。 Since only a small number of able men were available for office； full powers of administration； including appointment and removal； were concentrated in the hands of the governor。 He exercised a wide control over public funds and had authority to organize and command militia and constabulary and to call for Federal troops。 The numerous administrative boards worked with the sole object of keeping their party in power。 Officers were several times as numerous as under the old regime； and all of them received higher salaries and larger contingent fees。 The moral support behind the government was that of President Grant and the United States army； not that of a free and devoted people。
Of the twenty men who served as governors； eight were scalawags and twelve were carpetbaggers； men who were abler than the scalawags and who had much more than an equal share of the spoils。 The scalawags； such as Brownlow of Tennessee； Smith of Alabama； and Holden of North Carolina； were usually honest but narrow； vindictive men； filled with fear and hate of the conservative whites。
Of the carpetbaggers half were personally honest； but all were