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again； how much to chance； to destiny； to fortune？
Let Charles V and Henry VIII change places； and； in consequence
of a villanous divorce trial； it is conceivable （the reader will
understand why we say 'conceivable'） that Germany and the
Netherlands might have become what England and Spain have become。
Place in the position of Elizabeth； a weak woman allying herself to
a Philip II； and how would it have fared with the power； the
civilisation； and the liberties of Great Britain？
If the force of national character will alone account for
everything in this mighty revolution； must not then the greatest
share of its beneficial results have accrued to the nation from
which it sprang； namely； to Germany？ Instead of that； it is just
the German nation which reaped nothing save trouble and weakness
from this movement in the direction of progress。
In no European kingdom is the institution of an aristocracy
more judiciously designed than in England for securing to the
nobility； in their relation to the Crown and the commonalty；
individual independence； dignity； and stability； to give them a
Parliamentary training and position； to direct their energies to
patriotic and national aims； to induce them to attract to their own
body the 閘ite of the commonalty； to include in their ranks every
commoner who earns distinction； whether by mental gifts；
exceptional wealth； or great achievements； and； on the other hand；
to cast back again amongst the commons the surplus progeny of
aristocratic descent； thus leading to the amalgamation of the
nobility and the commonalty in future generations。 By this process
the nobility is ever receiving from the Commons fresh accessions of
civic and patriotic energy； of science； learning； intellectual and
material resources； while it is ever restoring to the people a
portion of the culture and of the spirit of independence peculiarly
its own； leaving its own children to trust to their own resources；
and supplying the commonalty with incentives to renewed exertion。
In the case of the English lord； however large may be the number of
his descendants； only one can hold the title at a time。 The other
members of the family are commoners； who gain a livelihood either
in one of the learned professions； or in the Civil Service； in
commerce； industry； or agriculture。 The story goes that some time
ago one of the first dukes in England conceived the idea of
inviting all the blood relations of his house to a banquet； but he
was fain to abandon the design because their name was legion；
notwithstanding that the family pedigree had not reached farther
back than for a few centuries。 It would require a whole volume to
show the effect of this institution upon the spirit of enterprise；
the colonisation； the might and the liberties； and especially upon
the forces of production of this nation。（9*）
The geographical position of England； too； has exercised an
immense influence upon the independent development of the nation。
England in its relation to the continent of Europe has ever been a
world by itself； and was always exempt from the effects of the
rivalries； the prejudices； the selfishness； the passions； and the
disasters of her Continental neighbours。 To this isolated condition
she is mainly indebted for the independent and unalloyed growth of
her political constitution； for the undisturbed consummation of the
Reformation； and for the secularisation of ecclesiastical property
which has proved so beneficial to her industries。 To the same cause
she is also indebted for that continuous peace； which； with the
exception of the period of the civil war； she has enjoyed for a
series of centuries； and which enabled her to dispense with
standing armies； while facilitating the early introduction of a
consistent customs system。
By reason of her insular position； England not only enjoyed
immunity from territorial wars； but she also derived immense
advantages for her manufacturing supremacy from the Continental
wars。 Land wars and devastations of territory inflict manifold
injury upon the manufactures at the seat of hostilities； directly；
by interfering with the farmer's work and destroying the crops；
which deprives the tiller of the soil of the means wherewithal to
purchase manufactured goods； and to produce raw material and food
for the manufacturer； indirectly； by often destroying the
manufactories； or at any rate ruining them； because hostilities
interfere with the importation of raw material and with the
exportation of goods； and because it becomes a difficult matter to
procure capital and labour just at the very time when the masters
have to bear extraordinary imposts and heavy taxation； and lastly
the injurious effects continue to operate even after the cessation
of the war； because both capital and individual effort are ever
attracted towards agricultural work and diverted from manufactures；
precisely in that proportion in which the war may have injured the
farmers and their crops； and thereby opened up a more directly
profitable field for the employment of capital and of labour than
the manufacturing industries would then afford。 While in Germany
this condition of things recurred twice in every hundred years； and
caused German manufactures to retrograde； those of England made
uninterrupted progress。 English manufacturers； as opposed to their
Continental competitors； enjoyed a double and treble advantage
whenever England； by fitting out fleets and armies； by subsidies；
or by both these means combined； proceeded to take an active part
in foreign wars。
We cannot agree with the defenders of unproductive expenditure；
namely； of that incurred by wars and the maintenance of large
armies； nor with those who insist upon the positively beneficial
character of a public debt； but neither do we believe that the
dominant school are in the right when they contend that all
consumption which is not directly reproductive for instance；
that of war is absolutely injurious without qualification。 The
equipment of armies； wars； and the debts contracted for these
purposes； may； as the example of England teaches； under certain
circumstances； very greatly conduce to the increase of the
productive powers of a nation。 Strictly speaking； material wealth
may have been consumed unproductively； but this consumption may；
nevertheless； stimulate manufacturers to extraordinary exertions；
and lead to new discoveries and improvements； especially to an
increase of productive powers。 This productive power then becomes
a permanent acquisition； it