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that looked through death； to which； to this day； the noblest of their
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THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
monuments bear an enduring testimony。 With all this； it is not surprising to
find a growth in the knowledge of practical medicine； but Egyptian
civilization illustrates how crude and primitive may remain a knowledge
of disease when conditioned by erroneous views of its nature。 At first； the
priest and physician were identified； and medicine never became fully
dissociated from religion。 Only in the later periods did a special group of
physicians arise who were not members of priestly colleges。＇6＇ Maspero
states that the Egyptians believed that disease and death were not natural
and inevitable； but caused by some malign influence which could use any
agency； natural or invisible； and very often belonged to the invisible world。
〃Often； though； it belongs to the invisible world； and only reveals itself by
the malignity of its attacks： it is a god； a spirit； the soul of a dead man； that
has cunningly entered a living person； or that throws itself upon him with
irresistible violence。 Once in possession of the body； the evil influence
breaks the bones； sucks out the marrow； drinks the blood； gnaws the
intestines and the heart and devours the flesh。 The invalid perishes
according to the progress of this destructive work； and death speedily
ensues； unless the evil genius can be driven out of it before it has
committed irreparable damage。 Whoever treats a sick person has therefore
two equally important duties to perform。 He must first discover the nature
of the spirit in possession； and； if necessary； its name； and then attack it；
drive it out； or even destroy it。 He can only succeed by powerful magic； so
he must be an expert in reciting incantations； and skilful in making
amulets。 He must then use medicine ＇drugs and diet＇ to contend with the
disorders which the presence of the strange being has produced in the
body。〃＇6＇
＇5＇ Maspero： Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria； London； 1891； p。 119。
＇6＇ Maspero： Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria； London； 1891； p。 118。
＇7＇ W。 Wreszinski： Die Medizin der alten Aegypter； Leipzig； J。 C。
Hinrichs； 1909…1912。
In this way it came about that diseases were believed to be due to
hostile spirits； or caused by the anger of a god； so that medicines； no
matter how powerful； could only be expected to assuage the pain； but
magic alone； incantations； spells and prayers； could remove the disease。
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THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
Experience brought much of the wisdom we call empirical； and the
records； extending for thousands of years； show that the Egyptians
employed emetics； purgatives； enemata； diuretics； diaphoretics and even
bleeding。 They had a rich pharmacopoeia derived from the animal；
vegetable and mineral kingdoms。 In the later periods； specialism reached a
remarkable development； and Herodotus remarks that the country was full
of physicians；〃One treats only the diseases of the eye； another those of
the head； the teeth； the abdomen； or the internal organs。〃
Our knowledge of Egyptian medicine is derived largely from the
remarkable papyri dealing specially with this subject。 Of these； six or
seven are of the first importance。 The most famous is that discovered by
Ebers； dating from about 1500 B。C。 A superb document； one of the great
treasures of the Leipzig Library； it is 20。23 metres long and 30 centimetres
high and in a state of wonderful preservation。 Others are the Kahun； Berlin；
Hearst and British Museum papyri。 All these have now been published
the last three quite recently； edited by Wreszinski。＇7＇ I show here a
reproduction from which an idea may be had of these remarkable
documents。 They are motley collections； filled with incantations； charms；
magical formulae； symbols； prayers and prescriptions for all sorts of
ailments。 One is impressed by the richness of the pharmacopoeia； and the
high development which the art of pharmacy must have attained。 There
were gargles； salves； snuffs； inhalations； suppositories； fumigations；
enemata； poultices and plasters； and they knew the use of opium； hemlock；
the copper salts； squills and castor oil。 Surgery was not very highly
developed； but the knife and actual cautery were freely used。 Ophthalmic
surgery was practiced by specialists； and there are many prescriptions in
the papyri for ophthalmia。
One department of Egyptian medicine reached a high stage of
development； vis。； hygiene。 Cleanliness of the dwellings； of the cities and
of the person was regulated by law； and the priests set a splendid example
in their frequent ablutions； shaving of the entire body； and the spotless
cleanliness of their clothing。 As Diodorus remarks； so evenly ordered was
their whole manner of life that it was as if arranged by a learned physician
rather than by a lawgiver。
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THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
Two world…wide modes of practice found their earliest illustration in
ancient Egypt。 Magic； the first of these； represented the attitude of
primitive man to nature； and really was his religion。 He had no idea of
immutable laws； but regarded the world about him as changeable and
fickle like himself； and 〃to make life go as he wished； he must be able to
please and propitiate or to coerce these forces outside himself。〃＇8＇
＇8＇ L。 Thorndike： The Place of Magic in the Intellectual History of
Europe； New York； 1905； p。 29。
The point of interest to us is that in the Pyramid Texts〃the oldest
chapter in human thinking preserved to us； the remotest reach in the
intellectual history of man which we are now able to discern〃＇9＇ one of
their six…fold contents relates to the practice of magic。 A deep belief
existed as to its efficacy； particularly in guiding the dead； who were said to