bentham-第13章

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d　States；　for　instance；　will　in　time　sink　into　another　China　（also　a　most　commercial　and　industrious　nation）；　resolves　itself；　to　us；　into　the　question；　whether　such　a　centre　of　resistance　will　gradually　evolve　itself　or　not。　　　　　These　things　being　considered；　we　cannot　think　that　Bentham　made　the　most　useful　employment　which　might　have　been　made　of　his　great　powers；　when；　not　content　with　enthroning　the　majority　as　sovereign；　by　means　of　universal　suffrage　without　king　or　house　of　lords；　he　exhausted　all　the　resources　of　ingenuity　in　devising　means　for　riveting　the　yoke　of　public　opinion　closer　and　closer　round　the　necks　of　all　public　functionaries；　and　excluding　every　possibility　of　the　exercise　of　the　slightest　or　most　temporary　influence　either　by　a　minority；　or　by　the　functionary's　own　notions　of　right。　Surely　when　any　power　has　been　made　the　strongest　power；　enough　has　been　done　for　it；　care　is　thenceforth　wanted　rather　to　prevent　that　strongest　power　from　swallowing　up　all　others。　Wherever　all　the　forces　of　society　act　in　one　single　direction；　the　just　claims　of　the　individual　human　being　are　in　extreme　peril。　The　power　of　the　majority　is　salutary　in　so　far　as　it　is　used　defensively；　not　offensively　　as　its　exertion　is　tempered　by　respect　for　the　personality　of　the　individual；　and　deference　to　superiority　of　cultivated　intelligence。　If　Bentham　had　employed　himself　in　pointing　out　the　means　by　which　institutions　fundamentally　democratic　might　be　best　adapted　to　the　preservation　and　strengthening　of　those　two　sentiments；　he　would　have　done　something　more　permanently　valuable；　and　more　worthy　of　his　great　intellect。　Montesquieu；　with　the　lights　of　the　present　age；　would　have　done　it；　and　we　are　possibly　destined　to　receive　this　benefit　from　the　Montesquieu　of　our　own　times；　M。　de　Tocqueville。　　　　　Do　we　then　consider　Bentham's　political　speculations　useless？　Far　from　it。　We　consider　them　only　one…sided。　He　has　brought　out　into　a　strong　light；　has　cleared　from　a　thousand　confusions　and　misconceptions；　and　pointed　out　with　admirable　skill　the　best　means　of　promoting；　one　of　the　ideal　qualities　of　a　perfect　government　　identity　of　interest　between　the　trustees　and　the　community　for　whom　they　hold　their　power　in　trust。　This　quality　is　not　attainable　in　its　ideal　perfection；　and　must　moreover　be　striven　for　with　a　perpetual　eye　to　all　other　requisites；　but　those　other　requisites　must　still　more　be　striven　for　without　losing　sight　of　this：　and　when　the　slightest　postponement　is　made　of　it　to　any　other　end；　the　sacrifice；　often　necessary；　is　never　unattended　with　evil。　Bentham　has　pointed　out　how　complete　this　sacrifice　is　in　modern　European　societies：　how　exclusively；　partial　and　sinister　interests　are　the　ruling　power　there；　with　only　such　check　as　is　imposed　by　public　opinion　　which　being　thus；　in　the　existing　order　of　things；　perpetually　apparent　as　a　source　of　good；　he　was　led　by　natural　partiality　to　exaggerate　its　intrinsic　excellence。　This　sinister　interest　of　rulers　Bentham　hunted　through　all　its　disguises；　and　especially　through　those　which　hide　it　from　the　men　themselves　who　are　influenced　by　it。　The　greatest　service　rendered　by　him　to　the　philosophy　of　universal　human　nature；　is；　perhaps；　his　illustration　of　what　he　terms　'interest…begotten　prejudice'　　the　common　tendency　of　man　to　make　a　duty　and　a　virtue　of　following　his　self…interest。　The　idea；　it　is　true；　was　far　from　being　peculiarly　Bentham's：　the　artifices　by　which　we　persuade　ourselves　that　we　are　not　yielding　to　our　selfish　inclinations　when　we　are；　had　attracted　the　notice　of　all　moralists；　and　had　been　probed　by　religious　writers　to　a　depth　as　much　below　Bentham's；　as　their　knowledge　of　the　profundities　and　windings　of　the　human　heart　was　superior　to　his。　But　it　is　selfish　interest　in　the　form　of　class…interest；　and　the　class　morality　founded　thereon；　which　Bentham　has　illustrated：　the　manner　in　which　any　set　of　persons　who　mix　much　together；　and　have　a　common　interest；　are　apt　to　make　that　common　interest　their　standard　of　virtue；　and　the　social　feelings　of　the　members　of　the　class　are　made　to　play　into　the　hands　of　their　selfish　ones；　whence　the　union　so　often　exemplified　in　history；　between　the　most　heroic　personal　disinterestedness　and　the　most　odious　class…selfishness。　This　was　one　of　Bentham's　leading　ideas；　and　almost　the　only　one　by　which　he　contributed　to　the　elucidation　of　history：　much　of　which；　except　so　far　as　this　explained　it；　must　have　been　entirely　inexplicable　to　him。　The　idea　was　given　him　by　Helvetius；　whose　book；　'De　l'Esprit'；　is　one　continued　and　most　acute　commentary　on　it；　and；　together　with　the　other　great　idea　of　Helvetius；　the　influence　of　circumstances　on　character；　it　will　make　his　name　live　by　the　side　of　Rousseau；　when　most　of　the　other　French　metaphysicians　of　the　eighteenth　century　will　be　extant　as　such　only　in　literary　history。　　　　　In　the　brief　view　which　we　have　been　able　to　give　of　Bentham's　philosophy；　it　may　surprise　the　reader　that　we　have　said　so　little　about　the　first　principle　of　it；　with　which　his　name　is　more　identified　than　with　anything　else；　the　'principle　of　utility'；　or；　as　he　afterwards　named　it；　'the　greatest…happiness　principle'。　It　is　a　topic　on　which　much　were　to　be　said；　if　there　were　room；　or　if　it　were　in　reality　necessary　for　the　just　estimation　of　Bentham。　On　an　occasion　more　suitable　for　a　discussion　of　the　metaphysics　of　morality；　or　on　which　the　elucidations　necessary　to　make　an　opinion　on　so　abstract　a　subject　intelligible　could　be　conveniently　given；　we　should　be　fully　prepared　to　state　what　we　think　on　this　subject。　At　present　we　shall　only　say；　that　while；　under　proper　explanations；　we　entirely　agree　with　Bentham　in　his　principle；　we　do　not　hold　with　him　that　all　right　thinking　on　the　details　of　morals　depends　on　its　express　assertion。　We　think　utility；　or　happiness；　much　too　complex　and　indefinite　an　end　to　be　sought　except　through　the　medium　of　various　secondary　ends；　conceding　which　there　may　be；　and　often　is；　agreement　among　persons　who　differ　in　their　ultimate　standard；　and　about　which　there　does　in　fact　prevail　a　much　greater　unanimity　among　thinking　persons；　than　might　be　supposed　from　their　diametrical　divergence　on　the　great　questions　of　moral　metaphysics。　As　mankind　are　much　more　nearly　of　one　nature；　than　of　one　opinion　about　their　own　nature；　they　are　more　easily　brought　to　agree　in　their　intermediate　principles；　vera　illa　et　media　axiomata；　as　Bacon　says；　than　in　their　first　principles：　and　the　attempt　to　make　the　bearings　of　actions　upon　the　ultimate　end　more　evident　than　they　can　be　made　by　referring　them　to　the　intermediate　ends；　and　to　estimate　their　value　by　a　direct　reference　to　human　happiness；　generally　terminates　in　attaching　most　importance；　not　to　those　effects　which　are　really　the　greatest；　but　to　those　which　can　most　easily　be　pointed　to　and　individually　identified。　Those　who　adopt　utility　as　a　standard　can　seldom　apply　it　truly　except　through　the　secondary　principles；　those　who　reject　it；　generally　do　no　more　than　erect　those　secondary　principles　into　first　principles。　It　is　when　two　or　more　of　the　secondary　principles　conflict；　that　a　direct　appeal　to　some　first　princ