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ons of his enemies。 〃There is no good faith in Colombia；〃 he exclaimed； 〃neither among men nor among nations。 Treaties are paper； constitutions； books； elections； combats； liberty； anarchy； and life itself a torment。〃
But the hardest blow was yet to fall。 Late in December； 1829； an assembly at Caracas declared Venezuela a separate state。 The great republic was rent in twain； and even what was left soon split apart。 In May； 1830； came the final crash。 The Congress at Bogota drafted a constitution； providing for a separate republic to bear the old Spanish name of 〃New Granada；〃 accepted definitely the resignation of Bolivar； and granted him a pension。 Venezuela； his native land； set up a congress of its own and demanded that he be exiled。 The division of Quito declared itself independent； under the name of the 〃Republic of the Equator〃 （Ecuador）。 Everywhere the artificial handiwork of the Liberator lay in ruins。 〃America is ungovernable。 Those who have served in the revolution have ploughed the sea； 〃 was his despairing cry。
Stricken to death； the fallen hero retired to an estate near Santa Marta。 Here； like his famous rival； San Martin； in France； he found hospitality at the hands of a Spaniard。 On December 17； 1830； the Liberator gave up his troubled soul。
While Bolivar's great republic was falling apart； the United Provinces of La Plata had lost practically all semblance of cohesion。 So broad were their notions of liberty that the several provinces maintained a substantial independence of one another； while within each province the caudillos； or partisan chieftains； fought among themselves。
Buenos Aires alone managed to preserve a measure of stability。 This comparative peace was due to the financial and commercial measures devised by Bernardino Rivadavia； one of the most capable statesmen of the time； and to the energetic manner in which disorder was suppressed by Juan Manuel de Rosas； commander of the gaucho； or cowboy； militia。 Thanks also to the former leader； the provinces were induced in 1826 to join in framing a constitution of a unitary character； which vested in the administration at Buenos Aires the power of appointing the local governors and of controlling foreign affairs。 The name of the country was at the same time changed to that of the 〃Argentine Confederation〃（c）…a Latin rendering of 〃La Plata。〃
No sooner had Rivadavia assumed the presidency under the new order of things than dissension at home and warfare abroad threatened to destroy all that he had accomplished。 Ignoring the terms of the constitution； the provinces had already begun to reject the supremacy of Buenos Aires； when the outbreak of a struggle with Brazil forced the contending parties for a while to unite in the face of the common enemy。 As before； the object of international dispute was the region of the Banda Oriental。 The rule of Brazil had not been oppressive； but the people of its Cisplatine Province； attached by language and sympathy to their western neighbors； longed nevertheless to be free of foreign control。 In April； 1825； a band of thirty…three refugees arrived from Buenos Aires and started a revolution which spread throughout the country。 Organizing a provisional government； the insurgents proclaimed independence of Brazil and incorporation with the United Provinces of La Plata。 As soon as the authorities at Buenos Aires had approved this action； war was inevitable。 Though the Brazilians were decisively beaten at the Battle of Ituzaingo； on February 20； 1827； the struggle lasted until August 28； 1828； when mediation by Great Britain led to the conclusion of a treaty at Rio de Janeiro； by which both Brazil and the Argentine Confederation recognized the absolute independence of the disputed province as the republic of Uruguay。
Instead of quieting the discord that prevailed among the Argentinos； these victories only fomented trouble。 The federalists had ousted Rivadavia and discarded the constitution； but the federal idea for which they stood had several meanings。 To an inhabitant of Buenos Aires federalism meant domination by the capital； not only over the province of the same name but over the other provinces； whereas； to the people of the provinces； and even to many of federalist faith in the province of Buenos Aires itself； the term stood for the idea of a loose confederation in which each provincial governor or chieftain should be practically supreme in his own district； so long as he could maintain himself。 The Unitaries were opponents of both； except in so far as their insistence upon a centralized form of government for the nation would necessarily lead to the location of that government at Buenos Aires。 This peculiar dual contest between the town and the province of Buenos Aires； and of the other provinces against either or both； persisted for the next sixty years。 In 1829； however； a prolonged lull set in； when Rosas； the gaucho leader； having won in company with other caudillos a decisive triumph over the Unitaries； entered the capital and took supreme command。
In Chile the course of events had assumed quite a different aspect。 Here； in 1818； a species of constitution had been adopted by popular vote in a manner that appeared to show remarkable unanimity； for the books in which the 〃ayes〃 and 〃noes〃 were to be recorded contained no entries in the negative！ What the records really prove is that O'Higgins； the Supreme Director； enjoyed the confidence of the ruling class。 In exercise of the autocratic power entrusted to him； he now proceeded to introduce a variety of administrative reforms of signal advantage to the moral and material welfare of the country。 But as the danger of conquest from any quarter lessened； the demand for a more democratic organization grew louder； until in 1822 it became so persistent that O'Higgins called a convention to draft a new fundamental law。 But its provisions suited neither himself nor his opponents。 Thereupon； realizing that his views of the political capacity of the people resembled those of Bolivar and were no longer applicable； and that his reforms had aroused too much hostility； the Supreme Director resigned his post and retired to Peru。 Thus another hero of emancipation had met the ingratitude for which republics are notorious。
Political convulsions in the country followed the abdication of O'Higgins。 Not only had the spirit of the strife between Unitaries and Federalists been communicated to Chile from the neighboring republic to the eastward； but two other parties or factions； divided on still different lines； had arisen。 These were the Conservative and the Liberal； or Bigwigs （pelucones） and Greenhorns （pipiolos）； as the adherents of the one derisively dubbed the partisans of the other。 Although in the ups and downs of the struggle two constitutions were adopted； neither sufficed to quiet the agitation。 Not until 1830； when the Liberals sustained an utter defeat on the field of battle； did the country enter upon a period of quiet progress along conservative lines。 》From that time onward it presented a surprising contrast to its fellow republics； which were beset with afflictions。
Far to the northward； the Empire of Mexico set up by Iturbide in 1822 was doomed to a s