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ssed； a Congress proceeded in 1857 to issue a liberal constitution which was destined to last for sixty years。 It established the federal system in a definite fashion； abolished special privileges； both ecclesiastical and military； and organized the country on sound bases worthy of a modern nation。 Mexico seemed about to enter upon a rational development。 But the newly elected President； yielding to the importunities of the clergy； abolished the constitution； dissolved the legislature； and set up a dictatorship； in spite of the energetic protests of Juarez； who had been chosen Chief Justice of the Supreme Court； and who； in accordance with the terms of the temporarily discarded instrument； was authorized to assume the presidency should that office fall vacant。 The rule of the usurper was short…lived； however。 Various improvised 〃generals〃 of conservative stripe put themselves at the head of a movement to 〃save country； religion； and the rights of the army；〃 drove the would…be dictator out； and restored the old regime。
Juarez now proclaimed himself acting President； as he was legally entitled to do； and set up his government at Vera Cruz while one 〃provisional president〃 followed another。 Throughout this trying time Juarez defended his position vigorously and rejected every offer of compromise。 In 1859 he promulgated his famous Reform Laws which nationalized ecclesiastical property； secularized cemeteries； suppressed religious communities； granted freedom of worship； and made marriage a civil contract。 For Mexico； however； as for other Spanish American countries； measures of the sort were far too much in advance of their time to insure a ready acceptance。 Although Juarez obtained a great moral victory when his government was recognized by the United States； he had to struggle two years more before he could gain possession of the capital。 Triumphant in 1861； he carried his anticlerical program to the point of actually expelling the Papal Nuncio and other ecclesiastics who refused to obey his decrees。 By so doing he leveled the way for the clericals； conservatives； and the militarists to invite foreign intervention on behalf of their desperate cause。 But； even if they had not been guilty of behavior so unpatriotic； the anger of the Pope over the treatment of his Church； the wrath of Spain over the conduct of Juarez； who had expelled the Spanish minister for siding with the ecclesiastics； the desire of Great Britain to collect debts due to her subjects； and above all the imperialistic ambitions of Napoleon III； who dreamt of converting the intellectual influence of France in Hispanic America into a political ascendancy； would probably have led to European occupation in any event； so long at least as the United States was slit asunder and incapable of action。
Some years before； the Mexican Government under the clerical and militarist regime had made a contract with a Swiss banker who for a payment of 500；000 had received bonds worth more than fifteen times the value of the loan。 When； therefore； the Mexican Congress undertook to defer payments on a foreign debt that included the proceeds of this outrageous contract； the Governments of France； Great Britain； and Spain decided to intervene。 According to their agreement the three powers were simply to hold the seaports of Mexico and collect the customs duties until their pecuniary demands had been satisfied。 Learning； however； that Napoleon III had ulterior designs； Great Britain and Spain withdrew their forces and left him to proceed with his scheme of conquest。 After capturing Puebla in May； 1863； a French army numbering some thirty thousand men entered the capital and installed an assemblage of notables belonging to the clerical and conservative groups。 This body thereupon proclaimed the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under an emperor。 The title was to be offered to Maximilian； Archduke of Austria。 In case he should not accept； the matter was to be referred to the 〃benevolence of his majesty； the Emperor of the French；〃 who might then select some other Catholic prince。
On his arrival； a year later； the amiable and well…meaning Maximilian soon discovered that； instead of being an 〃Emperor；〃 he was actually little more than a precarious chief of a faction sustained by the bayonets of a foreign army。 In the northern part of Mexico； Juarez； Porfirio Diaz；later to become the most renowned of presidential autocrats；and other patriot leaders； though hunted from place to place； held firmly to their resolve never to bow to the yoke of the pretender。 Nor could Maximilian be sure of the loyalty of even his supposed adherents。 Little by little the unpleasant conviction intruded itself upon him that he must either abdicate or crush all resistance in the hope that eventually time and good will might win over the Mexicans。 But do what they would； his foreign legions could not catch the wary and stubborn Juarez and his guerrilla lieutenants； who persistently wore down the forces of their enemies。 Then the financial situation became grave。 Still more menacing was the attitude of the United States now that its civil war was at an end。 On May 31； 1866； Maximilian received word that Napoleon III had decided to withdraw the French troops。 He then determined to abdicate； but he was restrained by the unhappy Empress Carlotta； who hastened to Europe to plead his cause with Napoleon。 Meantime； as the French troops were withdrawn； Juarez occupied the territory。
Feebly the 〃Emperor〃 strove to enlist the favor of his adversaries by a number of liberal decrees； but their sole result was his abandonment by many a lukewarm conservative。 Inexorably the patriot armies closed around him until in May； 1867； he was captured at Queretaro； where he had sought refuge。 Denied the privilege of leaving the country on a promise never to return； he asked Escobedo； his captor； to treat him as a prisoner of war。 〃That's my business；〃 was the grim reply。 On the pretext that Maximilian had refused to recognize the competence of the military court chosen to try him； Juarez gave the order to shoot him。 On the 19th of June the Austrian archduke paid for a fleeting glory with his life。 Thus failed the second attempt at erecting an empire in Mexico。 For thirty…four years diplomatic relations between that country and Austria…Hungary were severed。 The clericalmilitary combination had been overthrown； and the Mexican people had rearmed their independence。 As Juarez declared： 〃Peace means respect for the rights of others。〃
Even if foreign dreams of empire in Mexico had vanished so abruptly； it could hardly be expected that a land torn for many years by convulsions could become suddenly tranquil。 With Diaz and other aspirants to presidential power； or with chieftains who aimed at setting up little republics of their own in the several states； Juarez had to contend for some time before he could establish a fair amount of order。 Under his successor； who also was a civilian； an era of effective reform began。 In 1873 amendments to the constitution declared Church and State absolutely separate and provided for the abolition of peonagea provision which was more honored in； the breach than in the observance。
CHAPT