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Once in power； they hunted their enemies down until order under a dictator could be restored。 The military President who assumed power in 1876 was too radical to suit the clericals and too clerical to suit the radicals。 Accordingly his opponents decided to make the contest three…cornered by fighting the dictator and one another。 When the President had been forced out； a conservative took charge until parties of bushwhackers and mutinous soldiers were able to install a military leader； whose retention of power was brief。 In 1888 another conservative； who had been absent from the country when elected and who was an adept in law and diplomacy； managed to win sufficient support from all three factions to retain office for the constitutional period。
In Colombia a financial crisis had been approaching ever since the price of coffee； cocoa； and other Colombian products had fallen in the European markets。 This decrease had caused a serious diminution in the export trade and had forced gold and silver practically out of circulation。 At the same time the various 〃states〃 were increasing their powers at the expense of the federal Government； and the country was rent by factions。 In order to give the republic a thoroughly centralized administration which would restore financial confidence and bring back the influence of the Church as a social and political factor； a genuine revolution； which was started in 1876； eventually put an end to both radicalism and states' rights。 At the outset Rafael Nunez； the unitary and clerical candidate and a lawyer by profession； was beaten on the field； but at a subsequent election he obtained the requisite number of votes and； in 1880； assumed the presidency。 That the loser in war should become the victor in peace showed the futility of bloodshed in such revolutions。
Not until Nunez came into office again did he feel himself strong enough to uproot altogether the radicalism and disunion which had flourished since 1860。 Ignoring the national Legislature； he called a Congress of his own； which in 1886 framed a constitution that converted the 〃sovereign states〃 into 〃departments；〃 or mere administrative districts； to be ruled as the national Government saw fit。 Further； the presidential term was lengthened from two years to six； and the name of the country was changed； finally； to 〃Republic of Colombia。〃 Two years later the power of the Church was strengthened by a concordat with the Pope。
Venezuela on its part had undergone changes no less marked。 A liberal constitution promulgated in 1864 had provided for the reorganization of the country on a federal basis。 The name chosen for the republic was 〃United States of Venezuela。〃 More than that； it had anticipated Mexico and Guatemala in being the first of the Hispanic nations to witness the establishment of a presidential autocracy of the continuous and enlightened type。
Antonio Guzman Blanco was the man who imposed upon Venezuela for about nineteen years a regime of obedience to law； and； to some extent； of modern ideas of administration such as the country had never known before。 A person of much versatility； he had studied medicine and law before he became a soldier and a politician。 Later he displayed another kind of versatility by letting henchmen hold the presidential office while he remained the power behind the throne。 Endowed with a masterful will and a pronounced taste for minute supervision； he had exactly the ability necessary to rule Venezuela wisely and well。
Amid considerable opposition he began； in 1870； the first of his three periods of administrationthe Septennium； as it was termed。 The 〃sovereign〃 states he governed through 〃sovereign〃 officials of his own selection。 He stopped the plundering of farms and the dragging of laborers off to military service。 He established in Venezuela an excellent monetary system。 Great sums were expended in the erection of public and private buildings and in the embellishment of Caracas。 European capital and immigration were encouraged to venture into a country hitherto so torn by chronic disorder as to deprive both labor and property of all guarantees。 Roads； railways； and telegraph lines were constructed。 The ministers of the Church were rendered submissive to the civil power。 Primary education became alike free and compulsory。 As the phrase went； Guzman Blanco 〃taught Venezuela to read。〃 At the end of his term of office he went into voluntary retirement。
In 1879 Guzman Blanco put himself at the head of a movement which he called a 〃revolution of replevin〃which meant； presumably； that he was opposed to presidential 〃continuism；〃 and in favor of republican institutions！ Although a constitution promulgated in 1881 fixed the chief magistrate's term of office at two years； the success which Guzman Blanco had attained enabled him to control affairs for five yearsthe Quinquennium； as it was called。 Thereupon he procured his appointment to a diplomatic post in Europe； but the popular demand for his presence was too strong for him to remain away。 In 1886 he was elected by acclamation。 He held office two years more and then； finding that his influence had waned； he left Venezuela for good。 Whatever his faults in other respects； Guzman Blancobe it said to his credit tried to destroy the pest of periodical revolutions in his country。 Thanks to his vigorous suppression of these uprisings； some years of at least comparative security were made possible。 More than any other President the nation had ever had； he was entitled to the distinction of having been a benefactor； if not altogether a regenerator； of his native land。
CHAPTER VIII。 〃ON THE MARGIN OF INTERNATIONAL LIFE〃
During the period from 1889 to 1907 two incidents revealed the standing that the republics of Hispanic America had now acquired in the world at large。 In 1889 at Washington； and later in their own capital cities； they met with the United States in council。 In 1899； and again in 1907； they joined their great northern neighbor and the nations of Europe and Asia at The Hague for deliberation on mutual concerns； and they were admitted to an international fellowship and cooperation far beyond a mere recognition of their independence and a formal interchange of diplomats and consuls。
Since attempts of the Hispanic countries themselves to realize the aims of Bolivar in calling the Congress at Panama had failed； the United States now undertook to call into existence a sort of inter…American Congress。 Instead of being merely a supporter； the great republic of the north had resolved to become the director of the movement for greater solidarity in thought and action。 By linking up the concerns of the Hispanic nations with its own destinies it would assert not so much its position as guardian of the Monroe Doctrine as its headship； if not its actual dominance； in the New World； and would so widen the bounds of its political and commercial influence … a tendency known as 〃imperialism。〃 Such was the way； at least； in which the Hispanic republics came to view the action of the 〃Colossus of the North〃 in inviting them to participate in an assemblage meeting more or less periodically and termed officially the 〃International Conference of Ameri