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verlooked。 No demonstration can show that the results of the ethical development are definitive and universal。 We meet here again with the important opposition of systematisation and evolution。 There will； I think； always be an open question here； though comparative ethics； of which we have so far only the first attempts； can do much to throw light on it。
It would carry us too far to discuss all the philosophical works on ethics； which have been influenced directly or indirectly by evolutionism。 I may； however； here refer to the book of C。M。 Williams； 〃A Review of the Systems of Ethics founded on the Theory of Evolution〃 （New York and London； 1893。）； in which； besides Darwin； the following authors are reviewed： Wallace； Haeckel； Spencer； Fiske； Rolph； Barratt； Stephen； Carneri； Hoffding； Gizycki； Alexander； Ree。 As works which criticise evolutionistic ethics from an intuitive point of view and in an instructive way； may be cited： Guyau 〃La morale anglaise contemporaine〃 （Paris； 1879。）； and Sorley； 〃Ethics of Naturalism〃。 I will only mention some interesting contributions to ethical discussion which can be found in Darwinism besides the idea of struggle for life。
The attention which Darwin has directed to variations has opened our eyes to the differences in human nature as well as in nature generally。 There is here a fact of great importance for ethical thought； no matter from what ultimate premiss it starts。 Only from a very abstract point of view can different individuals be treated in the same manner。 The most eminent ethical thinkers； men such as Jeremy Bentham and Immanuel Kant； who discussed ethical questions from very opposite standpoints； agreed in regarding all men as equal in respect of ethical endowment。 In regard to Bentham； Leslie Stephen remarks： 〃He is determined to be thoroughly empirical； to take men as he found them。 But his utilitarianism supposed that men's views of happiness and utility were uniform and clear； and that all that was wanted was to show them the means by which their ends could be reached。〃 （〃English literature and society in the eighteenth century〃； London； 1904； page 187。） And Kant supposed that every man would find the 〃categorical imperative〃 in his consciousness； when he came to sober reflexion； and that all would have the same qualifications to follow it。 But if continual variations； great or small； are going on in human nature； it is the duty of ethics to make allowance for them； both in making claims； and in valuing what is done。 A new set of ethical problems have their origin here。 （Cf。 my paper； 〃The law of relativity in Ethics；〃 〃International Journal of Ethics〃； Vol。 I。 1891； pages 37…62。） It is an interesting fact that Stuart Mill's book 〃On Liberty〃 appeared in the same year as 〃The Origin of Species〃。 Though Mill agreed with Bentham about the original equality of all men's endowments； he regarded individual differences as a necessary result of physical and social influences； and he claimed that free play shall be allowed to differences of character so far as is possible without injury to other men。 It is a condition of individual and social progress that a man's mode of action should be determined by his own character and not by tradition and custom； nor by abstract rules。 This view was to be corroborated by the theory of Darwin。
But here we have reached a point of view from which the criticism； which in recent years has often been directed against Darwinthat small variations are of no importance in the struggle for lifeis of no weight。 From an ethical standpoint； and particularly from the ethical standpoint of Darwin himself； it is a duty to foster individual differences that can be valuable； even though they can neither be of service for physical preservation nor be physically inherited。 The distinction between variation and mutation is here without importance。 It is quite natural that biologists should be particularly interested in such variations as can be inherited and produce new species。 But in the human world there is not only a physical； but also a mental and social heredity。 When an ideal human character has taken form； then there is shaped a type； which through imitation and influence can become an important factor in subsequent development； even if it cannot form a species in the biological sense of the word。 Spiritually strong men often succumb in the physical struggle for life； but they can nevertheless be victorious through the typical influence they exert； perhaps on very distant generations； if the remembrance of them is kept alive； be it in legendary or in historical form。 Their very failure can show that a type has taken form which is maintained at all risks； a standard of life which is adhered to in spite of the strongest opposition。 The question 〃to be or not to be〃 can be put from very different levels of being： it has too often been considered a consequence of Darwinism that this question is only to be put from the lowest level。 When a stage is reached； where ideal （ethical； intellectual； aesthetic） interests are concerned； the struggle for life is a struggle for the preservation of this stage。 The giving up of a higher standard of life is a sort of death； for there is not only a physical； there is also a spiritual； death。
VI。
The Socratic character of Darwin's mind appears in his wariness in drawing the last consequences of his doctrine； in contrast both with the audacious theories of so many of his followers and with the consequences which his antagonists were busy in drawing。 Though he； as we have seen； saw from the beginning that his hypothesis would occasion 〃a whole of metaphysics；〃 he was himself very reserved as to the ultimate questions； and his answers to such questions were extorted from him。
As to the question of optimism and pessimism； Darwin held that though pain and suffering were very often the ways by which animals were led to pursue that course of action which is most beneficial to the species； yet pleasurable feelings were the most habitual guides。 〃We see this in the pleasure from exertion； even occasionally from great exertion of the body or mind； in the pleasure of our daily meals； and especially in the pleasure derived from sociability； and from loving our families。〃 But there was to him so much suffering in the world that it was a strong argument against the existence of an intelligent First Cause。 （〃Life and Letters〃 Vol。 I。 page 310。）
It seems to me that Darwin was not so clear on another question； that of the relation between improvement and adaptation。 He wrote to Lyell： 〃When you contrast natural selection and 'improvement；' you seem always to overlook。。。that every step in the natural selection of each species implies improvement in that species IN RELATION TO ITS CONDITION OF LIFE。。。Improvement implies； I suppose； EACH FORM OBTAINING MANY PARTS OR ORGANS； all excellently adapted for their functions。〃 〃All this；〃 he adds； 〃seems to me quite compatible with certain forms fitted for simple conditions； remaining unaltered； or being degraded。〃 （Ibid。 Vol。 II。 page 177。） But the great question is； if the conditions of life will in the long run favour 〃improvement〃 in the sen