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nal theory； looks to the natural ejaculations produced by particular forms of effort for the first beginnings of speech。 It would be futile to deny that some words in most languages come from imitation； and that others； probably fewer in number； can be traced to ejaculations。 But if either of these sources alone or both in combination gave rise to primitive speech； it clearly must have been a simple form of language and very limited in amount。 There is no reason to think that it was otherwise。 Presumably in its earliest stages language only indicated the most elementary ideas； demands for food or the gratification of other appetites； indications of danger； useful animals and plants。 Some of these； such as animals or indications of danger； could often be easily represented by imitative sounds： the need for food and the like could be indicated by gesture and natural cries。 Both sources are verae causae； to them Noire； supported by Max Muller； has added another which has sometimes been called the Yo…heave… ho theory。 Noire contends that the real crux in the early stages of language is for primitive man to make other primitive men understand what he means。 The vocal signs which commend themselves to one may not have occurred to another； and may therefore be unintelligible。 It may be admitted that this difficulty exists； but it is not insuperable。 The old story of the European in China who； sitting down to a meal and being doubtful what the meat in the dish might be； addressed an interrogative Quack…quack？ to the waiter and was promptly answered by Bow…wow； illustrates a simple situation where mutual understanding was easy。 But obviously many situations would be more complex than this； and to grapple with them Noire has introduced his theory of communal action。 〃It was common effort directed to a common object； it was the most primitive （uralteste） labour of our ancestors； from which sprang language and the life of reason。〃 （Noire 〃Der Ursprung der Sprache〃； page 331； Mainz； 1877。） As illustrations of such common effort he cites battle cries； the rescue of a ship running on shore （a situation not likely to occur very early in the history of man）； and others。 Like Max Muller he holds that language is the utterance and the organ of thought for mankind； the one characteristic which separates man from the brute。 〃In common action the word was first produced； for long it was inseparably connected with action； through long…continued connection it gradually became the firm； intelligible symbol of action； and then in its development indicated also things of the external world in so far as the action affected them and finally the sound began to enter into a connexion with them also。〃 （Op。 cit。 page 339。） In so far as this theory recognises language as a social institution it is undoubtedly correct。 Darwin some years before Noire had pointed to the same social origin of language in the fourth chapter of his work on 〃The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals〃。 〃Naturalists have remarked； I believe with truth； that social animals； from habitually using their vocal organs as a means of intercommunication； use them on other occasions much more freely than other animals。。。The principle； also； of association； which is so widely extended in its power； has likewise played its part。 Hence it allows that the voice； from having been employed as a serviceable aid under certain conditions； inducing pleasure； pain； rage； etc。； is commonly used whenever the same sensations or emotions are excited； under quite different conditions； or in a lesser degree。〃 （〃The Expression of the Emotions〃； page 84 （Popular Edition； 1904）。
Darwin's own views on language which are set forth most fully in 〃The Descent of Man〃 （page 131 ff。 （Popular Edition； 1906）。） are characterised by great modesty and caution。 He did not profess to be a philologist and the facts are naturally taken from the best known works of the day （1871）。 In the notes added to the second edition he remarks on Max Muller's denial of thought without words； 〃what a strange definition must here be given to the word thought！〃 （Op。 cit。 page 135； footnote 63。） He naturally finds the origin of language in 〃the imitation and modification of various natural sounds； the voices of other animals； and man's own instinctive cries aided by signs and gestures （op。 cit。 page 132。）。。。As the voice was used more and more； the vocal organs would have been strengthened and perfected through the principle of the inherited effects of use； and this would have reacted on the power of speech。〃 （Op。 cit。 page 133。） On man's own instinctive cries； he has more to say in 〃The Expression of the Emotions〃。 （Page 93 （Popular Edition； 1904） and elsewhere。） These remarks have been utilised by Prof。 Jespersen of Copenhagen in propounding an ingenious theory of his own to the effect that speech develops out of singing。 （〃Progress in Language〃； page 361； London； 1894。）
For many years and in many books Max Muller argued against Darwin's views on evolution on the one ground that thought is impossible without speech； consequently as speech is confined to the human race； there is a gulf which cannot be bridged between man and all other creatures。 （Some interesting comments on the theory will be found in a lecture on 〃Thought and Language〃 in Samuel Butler's 〃Essays on Life； Art and Science〃； London； 1908。） On the title…page of his 〃Science of Thought〃 he put the two sentences 〃No Reason without Language： No Language without Reason。〃 It may be readily admitted that the second dictum is true； that no language properly so… called can exist without reason。 Various birds can learn to repeat words or sentences used by their masters or mistresses。 In most cases probably the birds do not attach their proper meaning to the words they have learnt； they repeat them in season and out of season； sometimes apparently for their own amusement； generally in the expectation； raised by past experience； of being rewarded for their proficiency。 But even here it is difficult to prove a universal negative； and most possessors of such pets would repudiate indignantly the statement that the bird did not understand what was said to it； and would also contend that in many cases the words which it used were employed in their ordinary meaning。 The first dictum seems to be inconsistent with fact。 The case of deaf mutes； such as Laura Bridgeman； who became well educated； or the still more extraordinary case of Helen Keller； deaf； dumb； and blind； who in spite of these disadvantages has learnt not only to reason but to reason better than the average of persons possessed of all their senses； goes to show that language and reason are not necessarily always in combination。 Reason is but the conscious adaptation of means to ends； and so defined is a faculty which cannot be denied to many of the lower animals。 In these days when so many books on Animal Intelligence are issued from the press； it seems unnecessary to labour the point。 Yet none of these animals； except by parrot…imitation； makes use of speech； because man alone possesses in a sufficient degree of development the centres of nervous energy which are required for the wo