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n Columbus in exploring America。 In Italian generally the form 〃patata〃 has survived。 The tubers； however； also suggested a resemblance to truffles； so that the Italian word 〃tartufolo〃； a diminutive of the Italian modification of the Latin 〃terrae tuber〃 was applied to them。 In the language of the Rhaetian Alps this word appears as 〃tartufel〃。 From there it seems to have passed into Germany where potatoes were not cultivated extensively till the eighteenth century； and 〃tartufel〃 has in later times through some popular etymology been metamorphosed into 〃Kartoffel〃。 In France the shape of the tubers suggested the name of earth…apple （pomme de terre）； a name also adopted in Dutch （aard…appel）； while dialectically in German a form 〃Grumbire〃 appears； which is a corruption of 〃Grund…birne〃； 〃ground pear〃。 （Kluge 〃Etymologisches Worterbuch der deutschen Sprache〃 （Strassburg）； s。v。 〃Kartoffel〃。） Here half the languages have adopted the original American word for an allied plant； while others have adopted a name originating in some more or less fanciful resemblance discovered in the tubers； the Germans alone in Western Europe； failing to see any meaning in their borrowed name； have modified it almost beyond recognition。 To this English supplies an exact parallel in 〃parsnep〃 which； though representing the Latin 〃pastinaca〃 through the Old French 〃pastenaque〃； was first assimilated in the last syllable to the 〃nep〃 of 〃turnep〃 （〃pasneppe〃 in Elizabethan English）； and later had an 〃r〃 introduced into the first syllable； apparently on the analogy of 〃parsley〃。
The turkey on the other hand seems never to be found with its original American name。 In England； as the name implies； the turkey cock was regarded as having come from the land of the Turks。 The bird no doubt spread over Europe from the Italian seaports。 The mistake； therefore； was not unnatural； seeing that these towns conducted a great trade with the Levant； while the fact that America when first discovered was identified with India helped to increase the confusion。 Thus in French the 〃coq d'Inde〃 was abbreviated to 〃d'Inde〃 much as 〃turkey cock〃 was to 〃turkey〃； the next stage was to identify 〃dinde〃 as a feminine word and create a new 〃dindon〃 on the analogy of 〃chapon〃 as the masculine。 In Italian the name 〃gallo d'India〃 besides survives； while in German the name 〃Truthahn〃 seems to be derived onomatopoetically from the bird's cry； though a dialectic 〃Calecutischer Hahn〃 specifies erroneously an origin for the bird from the Indian Calicut。 In the Spanish 〃pavo〃； on the other hand； there is a curious confusion with the peacock。 Thus in these names for objects of common knowledge； the introduction of which into Europe can be dated with tolerable definiteness； we see evinced the methods by which in remoter ages objects were named。 The words were borrowed from the community whence came the new object； or the real or fancied resemblance to some known object gave the name； or again popular etymology might convert the unknown term into something that at least approached in sound a well…known word。
〃The Origin of Species〃 had not long been published when the parallelism of development in natural species and in languages struck investigators。 At the time； one of the foremost German philologists was August Schleicher； Professor at Jena。 He was himself keenly interested in the natural sciences； and amongst his colleagues was Ernst Haeckel； the protagonist in Germany of the Darwinian theory。 How the new ideas struck Schleicher may be seen from the following sentences by his colleague Haeckel。 〃Speech is a physiological function of the human organism； and has been developed simultaneously with its organs； the larynx and tongue； and with the functions of the brain。 Hence it will be quite natural to find in the evolution and classification of languages the same features as in the evolution and classification of organic species。 The various groups of languages that are distinguished in philology as primitive； fundamental； parent； and daughter languages； dialects； etc。； correspond entirely in their development to the different categories which we classify in zoology and botany as stems； classes； orders； families； genera； species and varieties。 The relation of these groups； partly coordinate and partly subordinate； in the general scheme is just the same in both cases； and the evolution follows the same lines in both。〃 （Haeckel； 〃The Evolution of Man〃； page 485； London； 1905。 This represents Schleicher's own words： Was die Naturforscher als Gattung bezeichnen wurden； heisst bei den Glottikern Sprachstamm； auch Sprachsippe； naher verwandte Gattungen bezeichnen sie wohl auch als Sprachfamilien einer Sippe oder eines Sprachstammes。。。Die Arten einer Gattung nennen wir Sprachen eines Stammes； die Unterarten einer Art sind bei uns die Dialekte oder Mundarten einer Sprache； den Varietaten und Spielarten entsprechen die Untermundarten oder Nebenmundarten und endlich den einzelnen Individuen die Sprechweise der einzelnen die Sprachen redenden Menschen。 〃Die Darwinische Theorie und die Sprachwissenschaft〃； Weimar； 1863； page 12 f。 Darwin makes a more cautious statement about the classification of languages in 〃The Origin of Species〃； page 578； （Popular Edition； 1900）。） These views were set forth in an open letter addressed to Haeckel in 1863 by Schleicher entitled； 〃The Darwinian theory and the science of language〃。 Unfortunately Schleicher's views went a good deal farther than is indicated in the extract given above。 He appended to the pamphlet a genealogical tree of the Indo…Germanic languages which； though to a large extent confirmed by later research； by the dichotomy of each branch into two other branches； led the unwary reader to suppose their phylogeny （to use Professor Haeckel's term） was more regular than our evidence warrants。
Without qualification Schleicher declared languages to be 〃natural organisms which originated unconditioned by the human will； developed according to definite laws； grow old and die； they also are characterised by that series of phenomena which we designate by the term 'Life。' Consequently Glottic； the science of language； is a natural science； its method is in general the same as that of the other natural sciences。〃 （〃Die Darwinische Theorie〃； page 6 f。） In accordance with this view he declared （op。 cit。 page 23。） that the root in language might be compared with the simple cell in physiology； the linguistic simple cell or root being as yet not differentiated into special organs for the function of noun； verb； etc。
In this probably all recent philologists admit that Schleicher went too far。 One of the most fertile theories in the modern science of language originated with him； and was further developed by his pupil； August Leskien （〃Die Declination im Slavisch…litanischen und Germanischen〃； Leipzig； 1876； Osthoff and Brugmann； 〃Morphologische Untersuchungen〃； I。 （Introduction）； 1878。 The general principles of this school were formulated （1880） in a fuller form in H。 Paul's 〃Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte〃； Halle （3rd edition； 1898）。 Paul and Wundt （in his 〃Volkerpsychologie〃） deal largely with the same matter； but begin thei