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To appreciate fully the immortal merit of Darwin in connection with anthropology； we must remember that not only did his chief work； 〃The Origin of Species〃； which opened up a new era in natural history in 1859； sustain the most virulent and widespread opposition for a lengthy period； but even thirty years later； when its principles were generally recognised and adopted； the application of them to man was energetically contested by many high scientific authorities。 Even Alfred Russel Wallace； who discovered the principle of natural selection independently in 1858； did not concede that it was applicable to the higher mental and moral qualities of man。 Dr Wallace still holds a spiritualist and dualist view of the nature of man； contending that he is composed of a material frame （descended from the apes） and an immortal immaterial soul （infused by a higher power）。 This dual conception； moreover； is still predominant in the wide circles of modern theology and metaphysics； and has the general and influential adherence of the more conservative classes of society。
In strict contradiction to this mystical dualism； which is generally connected with teleology and vitalism； Darwin always maintained the complete unity of human nature； and showed convincingly that the psychological side of man was developed； in the same way as the body； from the less advanced soul of the anthropoid ape； and； at a still more remote period； from the cerebral functions of the older vertebrates。 The eighth chapter of the 〃Origin of Species〃； which is devoted to instinct； contains weighty evidence that the instincts of animals are subject； like all other vital processes； to the general laws of historic development。 The special instincts of particular species were formed by adaptation； and the modifications thus acquired were handed on to posterity by heredity； in their formation and preservation natural selection plays the same part as in the transformation of every other physiological function。 The higher moral qualities of civilised man have been derived from the lower mental functions of the uncultivated barbarians and savages； and these in turn from the social instincts of the mammals。 This natural and monistic psychology of Darwin's was afterwards more fully developed by his friend George Romanes in his excellent works 〃Mental Evolution in Animals〃 and 〃Mental Evolution in Man〃。 （London； 1885； 1888。）
Many valuable and most interesting contributions to this monistic psychology of man were made by Darwin in his fine work on 〃The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex〃； and again in his supplementary work； 〃The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals〃。 To understand the historical development of Darwin's anthropology one must read his life and the introduction to 〃The Descent of Man〃。 From the moment that he was convinced of the truth of the principle of descentthat is to say； from his thirtieth year； in 1838he recognised clearly that man could not be excluded from its range。 He recognised as a logical necessity the important conclusion that 〃man is the co…descendant with other species of some ancient； lower； and extinct form。〃 For many years he gathered notes and arguments in support of this thesis； and for the purpose of showing the probable line of man's ancestry。 But in the first edition of 〃The Origin of Species〃 （1859） he restricted himself to the single line； that by this work 〃light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history。〃 In the fifty years that have elapsed since that time the science of the origin and nature of man has made astonishing progress； and we are now fairly agreed in a monistic conception of nature that regards the whole universe； including man； as a wonderful unity； governed by unalterable and eternal laws。 In my philosophical book 〃Die Weltratsel〃 （1899） （〃The Riddle of the Universe〃； London； 1900。） and in the supplementary volume 〃Die Lebenswunder〃 （1904） 〃The Wonders of Life〃； London； 1904。）； I have endeavoured to show that this pure monism is securely established； and that the admission of the all…powerful rule of the same principle of evolution throughout the universe compels us to formulate a single supreme lawthe all…embracing 〃Law of Substance；〃 or the united laws of the constancy of matter and the conservation of energy。 We should never have reached this supreme general conception if Charles Darwina 〃monistic philosopher〃 in the true sense of the wordhad not prepared the way by his theory of descent by natural selection； and crowned the great work of his life by the association of this theory with a naturalistic anthropology。
IX。 SOME PRIMITIVE THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF MAN。
By J。G。 FRAZER。 Fellow of Trinity College； Cambridge。
On a bright day in late autumn a good many years ago I had ascended the hill of Panopeus in Phocis to examine the ancient Greek fortifications which crest its brow。 It was the first of November； but the weather was very hot； and when my work among the ruins was done； I was glad to rest under the shade of a clump of fine holly…oaks； to inhale the sweet refreshing perfume of the wild thyme which scented all the air； and to enjoy the distant prospects； rich in natural beauty； rich too in memories of the legendary and historic past。 To the south the finely…cut peak of Helicon peered over the low intervening hills。 In the west loomed the mighty mass of Parnassus； its middle slopes darkened by pine…woods like shadows of clouds brooding on the mountain…side； while at its skirts nestled the ivy…mantled walls of Daulis overhanging the deep glen； whose romantic beauty accords so well with the loves and sorrows of Procne and Philomela； which Greek tradition associated with the spot。 Northwards； across the broad plain to which the hill of Panopeus descends； steep and bare； the eye rested on the gap in the hills through which the Cephissus winds his tortuous way to flow under grey willows； at the foot of barren stony hills； till his turbid waters lose themselves； no longer in the vast reedy swamps of the now vanished Copaic Lake； but in the darkness of a cavern in the limestone rock。 Eastward； clinging to the slopes of the bleak range of which the hill of Panopeus forms part； were the ruins of Chaeronea； the birthplace of Plutarch； and out there in the plain was fought the disastrous battle which laid Greece at the feet of Macedonia。 There； too； in a later age East and West met in deadly conflict； when the Roman armies under Sulla defeated the Asiatic hosts of Mithridates。 Such was the landscape spread out before me on one of those farewell autumn days of almost pathetic splendour； when the departing summer seems to linger fondly； as if loth to resign to winter the enchanted mountains of Greece。 Next day the scene had changed： summer was gone。 A grey November mist hung low on the hills which only yesterday had shone resplendent in the sun； and under its melancholy curtain the dead flat of the Chaeronean plain； a wide treeless expanse shut in by desolate slopes； wore an aspect of chilly sadness befitting the battlefield where a nation's freedom was lost。
But crowded as the prospect from Panopeus is with memories of the past； the place itself； now