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n his skin。 They were also of opinion that if a stone which had been bitten by a dog were dropped in wine； it would make all who drank of that wine to fall out among themselves。 Among the Arabs of Moab a childless woman often borrows the robe of a woman who has had many children； hoping with the robe to acquire the fruitfulness of its owner。 The Caffres of Sofala； in East Africa； had a great dread of being struck with anything hollow； such as a reed or a straw； and greatly preferred being thrashed with a good thick cudgel or an iron bar； even though it hurt very much。 For they thought that if a man were beaten with anything hollow； his inside would waste away till he died。 In eastern seas there is a large shell which the Buginese of Celebes call the old man （kadjawo）。 On Fridays they turn these old men upside down and place them on the thresholds of their houses； believing that whoever then steps over the threshold of the house will live to be old。 At initiation a Brahman boy is made to tread with his right foot on a stone； while the words are repeated； Tread on this stone； like a stone be firm； and the same ceremony is performed； with the same words； by a Brahman bride at her marriage。 In Madagascar a mode of counteracting the levity of fortune is to bury a stone at the foot of the heavy house…post。 The common custom of swearing upon a stone may be based partly on a belief that the strength and stability of the stone lend confirmation to an oath。 Thus the old Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus tells us that the ancients； when they were to choose a king； were wont to stand on stones planted in the ground； and to proclaim their votes； in order to foreshadow from the steadfastness of the stones that the deed would be lasting。
But while a general magical efficacy may be supposed to reside in all stones by reason of their common properties of weight and solidity； special magical virtues are attributed to particular stones； or kinds of stone； in accordance with their individual or specific qualities of shape and colour。 For example； the Indians of Peru employed certain stones for the increase of maize； others for the increase of potatoes； and others again for the increase of cattle。 The stones used to make maize grow were fashioned in the likeness of cobs of maize； and the stones destined to multiply cattle had the shape of sheep。
In some parts of Melanesia a like belief prevails that certain sacred stones are endowed with miraculous powers which correspond in their nature to the shape of the stone。 Thus a piece of water…worn coral on the beach often bears a surprising likeness to a bread…fruit。 Hence in the Banks Islands a man who finds such a coral will lay it at the root of one of his bread…fruit trees in the expectation that it will make the tree bear well。 If the result answers his expectation； he will then； for a proper remuneration； take stones of less…marked character from other men and let them lie near his； in order to imbue them with the magic virtue which resides in it。 Similarly； a stone with little discs upon it is good to bring in money； and if a man found a large stone with a number of small ones under it； like a sow among her litter； he was sure that to offer money upon it would bring him pigs。 In these and similar cases the Melanesians ascribe the marvellous power； not to the stone itself； but to its indwelling spirit； and sometimes； as we have just seen； a man endeavours to propitiate the spirit by laying down offerings on the stone。 But the conception of spirits that must be propitiated lies outside the sphere of magic； and within that of religion。 Where such a conception is found； as here； in conjunction with purely magical ideas and practices； the latter may generally be assumed to be the original stock on which the religious conception has been at some later time engrafted。 For there are strong grounds for thinking that； in the evolution of thought； magic has preceded religion。 But to this point we shall return presently。
The ancients set great store on the magical qualities of precious stones； indeed it has been maintained； with great show of reason； that such stones were used as amulets long before they were worn as mere ornaments。 Thus the Greeks gave the name of tree…agate to a stone which exhibits tree…like markings； and they thought that if two of these gems were tied to the horns or necks of oxen at the plough； the crop would be sure to be plentiful。 Again； they recognised a milkstone which produced an abundant supply of milk in women if only they drank it dissolved in honey…mead。 Milk…stones are used for the same purpose by Greek women in Crete and Melos at the present day； in Albania nursing mothers wear the stones in order to ensure an abundant flow of milk。 Again； the Greeks believed in a stone which cured snake…bites； and hence was named the snake…stone； to test its efficacy you had only to grind the stone to powder and sprinkle the powder on the wound。 The wine…coloured amethyst received its name； which means not drunken； because it was supposed to keep the wearer of it sober； and two brothers who desired to live at unity were advised to carry magnets about with them； which； by drawing the twain together； would clearly prevent them from falling out。
The ancient books of the Hindoos lay down a rule that after sunset on his marriage night a man should sit silent with his wife till the stars begin to twinkle in the sky。 When the pole…star appears； he should point it out to her； and； addressing the star； say； Firm art thou； I see thee； the firm one。 Firm be thou with me； O thriving one！ Then； turning to his wife； he should say； To me Brihaspati has given thee； obtaining offspring through me； thy husband； live with me a hundred autumns。 The intention of the ceremony is plainly to guard against the fickleness of fortune and the instability of earthly bliss by the steadfast influence of the constant star。 It is the wish expressed in Keats's last sonnet：
Bright star！ would I were steadfast as thou art Not in lone splendour hung aloft the night。
Dwellers by the sea cannot fail to be impressed by the sight of its ceaseless ebb and flow； and are apt； on the principles of that rude philosophy of sympathy and resemblance which here engages our attention； to trace a subtle relation； a secret harmony； between its tides and the life of man； of animals； and of plants。 In the flowing tide they see not merely a symbol； but a cause of exuberance； of prosperity； and of life； while in the ebbing tide they discern a real agent as well as a melancholy emblem of failure； of weakness； and of death。 The Breton peasant fancies that clover sown when the tide is coming in will grow well； but that if the plant be sown at low water or when the tide is going out； it will never reach maturity； and that the cows which feed on it will burst。 His wife believes that the best butter is made when the tide has just turned and is beginning to flow； that milk which foams in the churn will go on foaming till the hour of high water is past； and that water drawn from the well or milk extracted from the cow while the tide is rising will boil up in the pot or saucepan and overflow into the fire。 According to some of the ancients；