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or Plutarch； writing to console his wife on the death of their infant daughter； comforts her with the thought of the immortality of the soul as taught by tradition and revealed in the mysteries of Dionysus。 A different form of the myth of the death and resurrection of Dionysus is that he descended into Hades to bring up his mother Semele from the dead。 The local Argive tradition was that he went down through the Alcyonian lake； and his return from the lower world； in other words his resurrection； was annually celebrated on the spot by the Argives； who summoned him from the water by trumpet blasts； while they threw a lamb into the lake as an offering to the warder of the dead。 Whether this was a spring festival does not appear； but the Lydians certainly celebrated the advent of Dionysus in spring； the god was supposed to bring the season with him。 Deities of vegetation； who are believed to pass a certain portion of each year underground； naturally come to be regarded as gods of the lower world or of the dead。 Both Dionysus and Osiris were so conceived。
A feature in the mythical character of Dionysus； which at first sight appears inconsistent with his nature as a deity of vegetation； is that he was often conceived and represented in animal shape； especially in the form； or at least with the horns； of a bull。 Thus he is spoken of as cow…born； bull； bull…shaped； bull…faced； bull…browed； bull…horned； horn…bearing； two…horned； horned。 He was believed to appear； at least occasionally； as a bull。 His images were often； as at Cyzicus； made in bull shape； or with bull horns； and he was painted with horns。 Types of the horned Dionysus are found amongst the surviving monuments of antiquity。 On one statuette he appears clad in a bull's hide； the head； horns； and hoofs hanging down behind。 Again； he is represented as a child with clusters of grapes round his brow； and a calf's head； with sprouting horns； attached to the back of his head。 On a red…figured vase the god is portrayed as a calf…headed child seated on a woman's lap。 The people of Cynaetha held a festival of Dionysus in winter； when men； who had greased their bodies with oil for the occasion； used to pick out a bull from the herd and carry it to the sanctuary of the god。 Dionysus was supposed to inspire their choice of the particular bull； which probably represented the deity himself； for at his festivals he was believed to appear in bull form。 The women of Elis hailed him as a bull； and prayed him to come with his bull's foot。 They sang； Come hither； Dionysus； to thy holy temple by the sea； come with the Graces to thy temple； rushing with thy bull's foot； O goodly bull； O goodly bull！ The Bacchanals of Thrace wore horns in imitation of their god。 According to the myth； it was in the shape of a bull that he was torn to pieces by the Titans； and the Cretans； when they acted the sufferings and death of Dionysus； tore a live bull to pieces with their teeth。 Indeed； the rending and devouring of live bulls and calves appear to have been a regular feature of the Dionysiac rites。 When we consider the practice of portraying the god as a bull or with some of the features of the animal； the belief that he appeared in bull form to his worshippers at the sacred rites； and the legend that in bull form he had been torn in pieces； we cannot doubt that in rending and devouring a live bull at his festival the worshippers of Dionysus believed themselves to be killing the god； eating his flesh； and drinking his blood。
Another animal whose form Dionysus assumed was the goat。 One of his names was Kid。 At Athens and at Hermion he was worshipped under the title of the one of the Black Goatskin； and a legend ran that on a certain occasion he had appeared clad in the skin from which he took the title。 In the wine…growing district of Phlius； where in autumn the plain is still thickly mantled with the red and golden foliage of the fading vines； there stood of old a bronze image of a goat； which the husbandmen plastered with gold…leaf as a means of protecting their vines against blight。 The image probably represented the vine…god himself。 To save him from the wrath of Hera； his father Zeus changed the youthful Dionysus into a kid； and when the gods fled to Egypt to escape the fury of Typhon； Dionysus was turned into a goat。 Hence when his worshippers rent in pieces a live goat and devoured it raw； they must have believed that they were eating the body and blood of the god。 The custom of tearing in pieces the bodies of animals and of men and then devouring them raw has been practised as a religious rite by savages in modern times。 We need not therefore dismiss as a fable the testimony of antiquity to the observance of similar rites among the frenzied worshippers of Bacchus。
The custom of killing a god in animal form； which we shall examine more in detail further on； belongs to a very early stage of human culture； and is apt in later times to be misunderstood。 The advance of thought tends to strip the old animal and plant gods of their bestial and vegetable husk； and to leave their human attributes （which are always the kernel of the conception） as the final and sole residuum。 In other words； animal and plant gods tend to become purely anthropomorphic。 When they have become wholly or nearly so； the animals and plants which were at first the deities themselves； still retain a vague and ill…understood connexion with the anthropomorphic gods who have developed out of them。 The origin of the relationship between the deity and the animal or plant having been forgotten； various stories are invented to explain it。 These explanations may follow one of two lines according as they are based on the habitual or on the exceptional treatment of the sacred animal or plant。 The sacred animal was habitually spared； and only exceptionally slain； and accordingly the myth might be devised to explain either why it was spared or why it was killed。 Devised for the former purpose； the myth would tell of some service rendered to the deity by the animal； devised for the latter purpose； the myth would tell of some injury inflicted by the animal on the god。 The reason given for sacrificing goats to Dionysus exemplifies a myth of the latter sort。 They were sacrificed to him； it was said； because they injured the vine。 Now the goat； as we have seen； was originally an embodiment of the god himself。 But when the god had divested himself of his animal character and had become essentially anthropomorphic； the killing of the goat in his worship came to be regarded no longer as a slaying of the deity himself； but as a sacrifice offered to him； and since some reason had to be assigned why the goat in particular should be sacrificed； it was alleged that this was a punishment inflicted on the goat for injuring the vine； the object of the god's especial care。 Thus we have the strange spectacle of a god sacrificed to himself on the ground that he is his own enemy。 And as the deity is supposed to partake of the victim offered to him； it follows that； when the victim is the god's old self； the god eats of his own flesh。 Hence the goat…god Dionysus is represented as eating raw goat's blood； and the bull…god Dionysus is called eater of bulls。 On the