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d the Hindoo Koosh； as we have seen； hold their general clearance of demons at harvest； others at sowing…time。 But； at whatever season of the year it is held； the general expulsion of devils commonly marks the beginning of the new year。 For； before entering on a new year； people are anxious to rid themselves of the troubles that have harassed them in the past； hence it comes about that in so many communities the beginning of the new year is inaugurated with a solemn and public banishment of evil spirits。
In the third place； it is to be observed that this public and periodic expulsion of devils is commonly preceded or followed by a period of general license； during which the ordinary restraints of society are thrown aside； and all offences； short of the gravest； are allowed to pass unpunished。 In Guinea and Tonquin the period of license precedes the public expulsion of demons； and the suspension of the ordinary government in Lhasa previous to the expulsion of the scapegoat is perhaps a relic of a similar period of universal license。 Amongst the Hos of India the period of license follows the expulsion of the devil。 Amongst the Iroquois it hardly appears whether it preceded or followed the banishment of evils。 In any case； the extraordinary relaxation of all ordinary rules of conduct on such occasions is doubtless to be explained by the general clearance of evils which precedes or follows it。 On the one hand； when a general riddance of evil and absolution from all sin is in immediate prospect； men are encouraged to give the rein to their passions； trusting that the coming ceremony will wipe out the score which they are running up so fast。 On the other hand； when the ceremony has just taken place； men's minds are freed from the oppressive sense； under which they generally labour； of an atmosphere surcharged with devils； and in the first revulsion of joy they overleap the limits commonly imposed by custom and morality。 When the ceremony takes place at harvest…time； the elation of feeling which it excites is further stimulated by the state of physical wellbeing produced by an abundant supply of food。
Fourthly； the employment of a divine man or animal as a scapegoat is especially to be noted； indeed； we are here directly concerned with the custom of banishing evils only in so far as these evils are believed to be transferred to a god who is afterwards slain。 It may be suspected that the custom of employing a divine man or animal as a public scapegoat is much more widely diffused than appears from the examples cited。 For； as has already been pointed out； the custom of killing a god dates from so early a period of human history that in later ages； even when the custom continues to be practised； it is liable to be misinterpreted。 The divine character of the animal or man is forgotten； and he comes to be regarded merely as an ordinary victim。 This is especially likely to be the case when it is a divine man who is killed。 For when a nation becomes civilised； if it does not drop human sacrifices altogether； it at least selects as victims only such wretches as would be put to death at any rate。 Thus the killing of a god may sometimes come to be confounded with the execution of a criminal。
If we ask why a dying god should be chosen to take upon himself and carry away the sins and sorrows of the people； it may be suggested that in the practice of using the divinity as a scapegoat we have a combination of two customs which were at one time distinct and independent。 On the one hand we have seen that it has been customary to kill the human or animal god in order to save his divine life from being weakened by the inroads of age。 On the other hand we have seen that it has been customary to have a general expulsion of evils and sins once a year。 Now； if it occurred to people to combine these two customs； the result would be the employment of the dying god as a scapegoat。 He was killed； not originally to take away sin； but to save the divine life from the degeneracy of old age； but； since he had to be killed at any rate； people may have thought that they might as well seize the opportunity to lay upon him the burden of their sufferings and sins； in order that he might bear it away with him to the unknown world beyond the grave。
The use of the divinity as a scapegoat clears up the ambiguity which； as we saw； appears to hang about the European folk…custom of carrying out Death。 Grounds have been shown for believing that in this ceremony the so…called Death was originally the spirit of vegetation； who was annually slain in spring； in order that he might come to life again with all the vigour of youth。 But； as I pointed out； there are certain features in the ceremony which are not explicable on this hypothesis alone。 Such are the marks of joy with which the effigy of Death is carried out to be buried or burnt； and the fear and abhorrence of it manifested by the bearers。 But these features become at once intelligible if we suppose that the Death was not merely the dying god of vegetation； but also a public scapegoat； upon whom were laid all the evils that had afflicted the people during the past year。 Joy on such an occasion is natural and appropriate； and if the dying god appears to be the object of that fear and abhorrence which are properly due not to himself； but to the sins and misfortunes with which he is laden； this arises merely from the difficulty of distinguishing； or at least of marking the distinction； between the bearer and the burden。 When the burden is of a baleful character； the bearer of it will be feared and shunned just as much as if he were himself instinct with those dangerous properties of which； as it happens； he is only the vehicle。 Similarly we have seen that disease…laden and sin…laden boats are dreaded and shunned by East Indian peoples。 Again； the view that in these popular customs the Death is a scapegoat as well as a representative of the divine spirit of vegetation derives some support from the circumstance that its expulsion is always celebrated in spring and chiefly by Slavonic peoples。 For the Slavonic year began in spring； and thus； in one of its aspects； the ceremony of carrying out Death would be an example of the widespread custom of expelling the accumulated evils of the old year before entering on a new one。
Chapter 58。 Human Scapegoats in Classical Antiquity。
1。 The Human Scapegoat in Ancient Rome
WE are now prepared to notice the use of the human scapegoat in classical antiquity。 Every year on the fourteenth of March a man clad in skins was led in procession through the streets of Rome； beaten with long white rods； and driven out of the city。 He was called Mamurius Veturius； that is； the old Mars； and as the ceremony took place on the day preceding the first full moon of the old Roman year （which began on the first of March）； the skin…clad man must have represented the Mars of the past year； who was driven out at the beginning of a new one。 Now Mars was originally not a god of war but of vegetation。 For it was to Mars that the Roman husbandman prayed for the prosperity of his corn and his vines； his fruit…trees and his copses； it was to Mars that the priestly college of the Arval Brothers； whose