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al and brown meal were split in four； and placed in a small flour…bag； and everybody present had to pick out a portion。 The last bit in the bag fell to the lot of the bag…holder。 Each person who chanced to pick up a piece of brown…meal cake was compelled to leap three times over the flames； or to run thrice between the two fires； by which means the people thought they were sure of a plentiful harvest。 Shouts and screams of those who had to face the ordeal could be heard ever so far； and those who chanced to pick the oatmeal portions sang and danced and clapped their hands in approval； as the holders of the brown bits leaped three times over the flames； or ran three times between the two fires。
The belief of the people that by leaping thrice over the bonfires or running thrice between them they ensured a plentiful harvest is worthy of note。 The mode in which this result was supposed to be brought about is indicated by another writer on Welsh folk…lore； according to whom it used to be held that the bonfires lighted in May or Midsummer protected the lands from sorcery； so that good crops would follow。 The ashes were also considered valuable as charms。 Hence it appears that the heat of the fires was thought to fertilise the fields； not directly by quickening the seeds in the ground； but indirectly by counteracting the baleful influence of witchcraft or perhaps by burning up the persons of the witches。
The Beltane fires seem to have been kindled also in Ireland； for Cormac； or somebody in his name； says that belltaine； May…day； was so called from the 'lucky fire；' or the 'two fires；' which the druids of Erin used to make on that day with great incantations； and cattle； he adds； used to be brought to those fires； or to be driven between them； as a safeguard against the diseases of the year。 The custom of driving cattle through or between fires on May Day or the eve of May Day persisted in Ireland down to a time within living memory。
The first of May is a great popular festival in the more midland and southern parts of Sweden。 On the eve of the festival huge bonfires； which should be lighted by striking two flints together； blaze on all the hills and knolls。 Every large hamlet has its own fire； round which the young people dance in a ring。 The old folk notice whether the flames incline to the north or to the south。 In the former case； the spring will be cold and backward； in the latter； it will be mild and genial。 In Bohemia； on the eve of May Day； young people kindle fires on hills and eminences； at crossways； and in pastures； and dance round them。 They leap over the glowing embers or even through the flames。 The ceremony is called burning the witches。 In some places an effigy representing a witch used to be burnt in the bonfire。 We have to remember that the eve of May Day is the notorious Walpurgis Night； when the witches are everywhere speeding unseen through the air on their hellish errands。 On this witching night children in Voigtland also light bonfires on the heights and leap over them。 Moreover； they wave burning brooms or toss them into the air。 So far as the light of the bonfire reaches； so far will a blessing rest on the fields。 The kindling of the fires on Walpurgis Night is called driving away the witches。 The custom of kindling fires on the eve of May Day （Walpurgis Night） for the purpose of burning the witches is； or used to be； widespread in the Tyrol； Moravia； Saxony and Silesia。
5。 The Midsummer Fires
BUT THE SEASON at which these firefestivals have been most generally held all over Europe is the summer solstice； that is Midsummer Eve （the twenty…third of June） or Midsummer day （the twenty…fourth of June）。 A faint tinge of Christianity has been given to them by naming Midsummer Day after St。 John the Baptist； but we cannot doubt that the celebration dates from a time long before the beginning of our era。 The summer solstice； or Midsummer Day； is the great turning…point in the sun's career； when； after climbing higher and higher day by day in the sky； the luminary stops and thenceforth retraces his steps down the heavenly road。 Such a moment could not but be regarded with anxiety by primitive man so soon as he began to observe and ponder the courses of the great lights across the celestial vault； and having still to learn his own powerlessness in face of the vast cyclic changes of nature； he may have fancied that he could help the sun in his seeming declinecould prop his failing steps and rekindle the sinking flame of the red lamp in his feeble hand。 In some such thoughts as these the midsummer festivals of our European peasantry may perhaps have taken their rise。 Whatever their origin； they have prevailed all over this quarter of the globe； from Ireland on the west to Russia on the east； and from Norway and Sweden on the north to Spain and Greece on the south。 According to a medi？val writer； the three great features of the midsummer celebration were the bonfires； the procession with torches round the fields； and the custom of rolling a wheel。 He tells us that boys burned bones and filth of various kinds to make a foul smoke； and that the smoke drove away certain noxious dragons which at this time； excited by the summer heat； copulated in the air and poisoned the wells and rivers by dropping their seed into them； and he explains the custom of trundling a wheel to mean that the sun； having now reached the highest point in the ecliptic； begins thenceforward to descend。
The main features of the midsummer fire…festival resemble those which we have found to characterise the vernal festivals of fire。 The similarity of the two sets of ceremonies will plainly appear from the following examples。
A writer of the first half of the sixteenth century informs us that in almost every village and town of Germany public bonfires were kindled on the Eve of St。 John； and young and old； of both sexes； gathered about them and passed the time in dancing and singing。 People on this occasion wore chaplets of mugwort and vervain； and they looked at the fire through bunches of larkspur which they held in their hands； believing that this would preserve their eyes in a healthy state throughout the year。 As each departed； he threw the mugwort and vervain into the fire； saying； May all my ill…luck depart and be burnt up with these。 At Lower Konz； a village situated on a hillside overlooking the Moselle； the midsummer festival used to be celebrated as follows。 A quantity of straw was collected on the top of the steep Stromberg Hill。 Every inhabitant； or at least every householder； had to contribute his share of straw to the pile。 At nightfall the whole male population； men and boys； mustered on the top of the hill； the women and girls were not allowed to join them； but had to take up their position at a certain spring half…way down the slope。 On the summit stood a huge wheel completely encased in some of the straw which had been jointly contributed by the villagers； the rest of the straw was made into torches。 From each side of the wheel the axle…tree projected about three feet； thus furnishing handles to the lads who were to guide it in its descent。 The mayor of the neighbouring town of Sierck； who always received a basket of che