political economy-第38章

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vestigate。　They　depend　on　being　happy；　they　marry　much　younger；　they　bring　into　the　world　many　more　children；　precisely　because　they　know　less　distinctly　how　those　children　are　to　be　established。　　　　　Thus　metayers；　day…labourers。　all　peasants　depending　on　a　master；　being　more　imperfectly　able　to　judge　of　their　situation　by　themselves；　ought　to　be　guided　and　protected　by　government。　Landed　proprietors　wield　all　the　force　of　monopoly　against　them；　whilst　day…labourers；　acting　in　competition　with　each　other；　are　finally　reduced　to　work　for　the　most　wretched　subsistence。　Those　measures　are　wise；　therefore；　which　have　been　adopted　by　legislators　to　fix　the　minimum　share　that　should　fall　to　each　peasant。　It　would；　in　general；　be　a　beneficent　law　which　should　permit　no　division　of　a　metairie　below　a　certain　limit；　no　reduction　below　a　half　on　the　metayer's　part。　It　is　a　beneficent　law　which　has　fixed　the　peasant's　lot　in　Austria；　a　law　which　should　invariably　fix　the　Russian　peasant's　capitation　to　his　landlord；　would　be　equivalent　to　an　emancipation　from　serfage；　and　free　from　all　the　convulsions　of　such　a　step。　The　Russian　nation　could　not；　perhaps；　receive　a　greater　benefit　from　its　government。　The　statute　of　Elizabeth；　in　fine；　was　wise　in　prohibiting　a　cottage　from　being　built　without　at　least　four　acres　of　land　being　allotted　to　it。　Had　this　law　been　executed　in　England　and　Ireland；　no　marriage　could　have　happened　among　day…labourers　without　a　cottage　to　shelter　the　family；　no　cottager　would　have　been　reduced　to　the　last　degree　of　penury。　　　　　The　industrious　population　which　inhabit　towns　have　still　fewer　data　than　those　of　the　country；　for　calculating　the　lot　of　the　succeeding　generation。　The　workman　knows　only　that　he　has　lived　by　his　labour；　he　naturally　believes　that　his　children　will　do　so　likewise。　How　can　he　judge　of　the　extent　of　the　market；　or　the　general　demand　for　labour　in　his　country；　whilst　the　master　who　employs　him　is　incessantly　mistaken　on　these　points？　Accordingly；　this　class；　more　dependent　than　any　other　on　chances　of　every　kind　for　its　subsistence；　is　exactly　the　class　which　calculates　those　chances　least　in　the　formation　of　a　family。　They　are　the　people　who　marry　soonest；　produce　most　children；　and　consequently　lose　most：　but　they　do　not　lose　their　children；　till　after　being　themselves　exposed　to　a　competition　which　deprives　them　successively　of　all　the　sweets　of　life。　　　　　At　the　time　when　all　towns　were　distributed　into　bodies　of　tradesmen；　when　a　calling　could　not　be　exercised　till　the　applicant　had　been　united　to　a　corporation；　a　workman　never　married　till　after　he　had　been　passed　master。　A　reception　into　the　trade　gave　him　the　certainty　of　being　able　to　maintain　his　family；　an　excessive　competition　did　not　expose　the　great　mass　of　the　population　to　the　danger　of　dying　from　hunger。　Thus；　all　the　institutions　created　in　the　republics　of　the　middle　ages；　and　reproduced　in　Queen　Elizabeth's　statute　of　apprenticeship；　though　keenly　attacked　by　Adam　Smith；　for　establishing　a　monopoly　contrary　to　the　consumer's　interest；　may　be　defended；　not　in　regard　to　the　increase　of　riches；　but　as　forming　a　necessary　obstacle　to　the　immoderate　increase　of　population。　　　　　Yet　because　the　system　we　follow　has　made　us　experience　a　calamity；　we　ought　not　to　imagine　that　no　escape　is　to　be　found；　except　by　rushing　into　the　opposite　extreme。　It　is　not　by　the　suppression　of　corporations　alone；　that　we　have　disproportionately　increased　the　manufacturing　population。　It　is　much　more　by　the　inordinate　encouragement　which　all　governments；　at　the　same　time；　have　given　to　production　without　attending　to　consumption。　We　have　already　pointed　out　the　results　of　this　imprudent　struggle；　in　regard　to　the　increase　of　wealth。　They　have　been　still　more　disastrous　in　producing　and　supporting　with　deceitful　hopes　a　population；　which　has　afterwards　been　abandoned　to　all　the　horrors　of　want。　　　　　A　state　ought；　doubtless；　to　receive　with　gratitude　whatever　new　industry　the　wants　of　consumers　may　develop　but　it　also　ought　to　allow　the　industry　which　is　quitting　it　to　depart；　without　any　effort　to　the　contrary。　When　the　profits　of　a　manufacture　diminish；　new　workmen　do　not　engage　in　it；　former　workmen　withdraw；　and　after　some　years　of　suffering；　too　long　and　too　cruel；　by　any　mode　of　treatment；　the　level　is　again　established。　But　if　the　favours　of　government　keep　up　the　staggering　manufacture；　if；　trying　to　save　it；　government　offers　bounties　for　the　discovery　of　any　machine　which　shall　spare　manual　labour；　it　will　prolong　suffering；　and　save　the　manufacturer　only　at　the　expense　of　those　whom　that　manufacturer　should　support。　　　　　The　guardian　population　presents　the　same　species　of　suffering　in　another　rank　of　society。　War　multiplies　the　commissions　of　officers　in　the　army　and　navy；　the　complicacy　of　administration　multiplies　the　places　of　judges　and　civil　agents　of　all　kinds。　Religious　zeal　multiplies　the　places　for　pastors。　All　of　them　live　on　pensions　with　a　certain　degree　of　opulence；　none　of　them　knows；　or　is　able　to　insure　the　fund　which　affords　him　subsistence。　They　reckon　on　ushering　their　children　into　the　same　career　with　themselves；　they　bring　them　up；　multiply　their　families　in　proportion　to　their　actual　opulence；　and　blindly　repose　on　the　future。　Their　pension；　however；　finishes　with　their　life；　and　at　death　they　leave　their　children　in　a　state　of　indigence；　the　suffering　of　which　is　farther　aggravated　by　the　possession　of　a　liberal　education。　The　laws　which　obstruct　the　marriage　of　officers；　judges；　clergymen；　and　generally　of　all　such　as　live　on　pensions；　how　hard　soever　those　law　may　appear　at　their　first　establishment；　are　justifiable；　because　they　save　from　poverty　the　class　to　which　its　torments　would　be　most　piercing。　　　　　But　an　inordinate　increase　of　population　is　not　the　only　cause　of　this　national　suffering。　The　demand　for　labour　may　decrease；　and　the　population　continue　stationary。　Consumption　may　be　arrested；　revenues　dissipated；　capital　destroyed；　and　the　number　of　hands　formerly　occupied　may　no　longer　be　able　to　find　a　sufficient　employment。　The　population　immediately　follow　the　revolution　of　the　capitals　destined　to　support　it。　As　day…labourers　are　more　eager　to　receive　even　the　smallest　wage；　than　merchants　to　employ　their　money；　the　former　are　laid　under　conditions　more　and　more　hard；　as　the　demand　on　the　capital　diminishes；　and　they　conclude　by　contenting　themselves　with　so　miserable　a　remuneration；　as　is　scarcely　sufficient　to　maintain　them　alive。　No　enjoyment　is　any　longer　attached　to　the　existence　of　this　unhappy　class；　hunger　and　suffering　stifle　in　them　all　the　moral　affections。　When　every　hour　is　a　struggle　for　life；　all　passions　are　concentrated　in　selfishness；　each　forgets　the　pain　of　others　in　what　himself　suffers；　the　sentiments　of　nature　are　blunted；　a　constant；　obstinate；　uniform　labour；　debases　all　the　faculties。　One　blushes　for　the　human　species；　to　see　how　low　on　the　scale　of　degradation　it　can　descend；　how　much　beneath　the　condition　of　animals　it　can　voluntarily　submit　to　maintain　life；　and；　notwithstanding　all　the　benefits　of　social　order；　notwithstanding　the　advantages　which　man　has　gained　from　the　arts；