political economy-第39章

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ll　the　benefits　of　social　order；　notwithstanding　the　advantages　which　man　has　gained　from　the　arts；　one　is　sometimes　tempted　to　execrate　the　division　of　labour；　and　the　invention　of　manufactures　on　beholding　to　what　extremes　of　wretchedness　they　have　reduced　beings　created　equal　with　ourselves。　　　　　The　misery　of　the　savage　hunter；　who　dies　so　frequently　of　hunger；　is　not　equal　to　that　of　millions　of　families；　whom　a　manufacturer　sometimes　dismisses；　because　at　least　there　remains　to　the　former；　all　the　energy；　and　all　the　intelligence；　which　he　has　put　to　proof　during　all　his　life。　When　he　dies　for　want　of　finding　game；　he　yields　to　a　necessity　which　nature　herself　presents；　and　to　which　he　knew；　from　the　beginning；　he　must　submit；　as　to　sickness；　or　to　old　age。　But　the　artisan；　dismissed　from　his　workshop；　with　his　wife　and　children；　has　beforehand　lost　the　strength　of　his　soul　and　his　body；　he　is　still　surrounded　with　riches；　he　still　sees　beside　him；　at　every　step；　the　food　which　he　requires；　and　if　society　refuses　him　the　labour　by　which　he　offers；　till　his　last　moment；　to　purchase　bread；　it　is　men；　not　nature；　that　he　blames。　　　　　Even　when　persons　do　not　actually　die　of　hunger；　even　when　the　aids　of　charity　are　eagerly　administered　to　all　indigent　families；　discouragement　and　suffering　produce　their　cruel　effects　on　the　poor；　the　diseases　of　the　soul　are　communicated　to　the　body；　epidemics　are　multiplied；　children　die　in　a　few　months　after　their　birth；　and　the　suppression　of　labour　causes　more　cruel　ravages　than　the　cruellest　war：　besides；　fatal　habits；　either　of　mendicity　or　idleness；　take　root　in　the　population；　another　course　is　given　to　trade；　another　direction　to　fashion；　and　even　after　death　has　cleared　the　ranks　of　workmen；　those　who　remain　are　no　longer　in　a　condition　to　support　the　competition　of　foreigners。　　　　　The　causes　of　diminution　in　the　demand　for　labour；　often　belong　to　polity；　properly　so　called；　rather　than　to　political　economy。　There　is；　perhaps；　none　more　efficacious　than　the　loss　or　diminution　of　liberty；　When　a　nation　begins　to　alienate　this　precious　possession；　each　citizen　thinks　himself　less　secure　of　his　fortune；　of　the　fruits　of　his　labour；　each　abates　something　of　the　activity　of　his　mind；　and　his　spirit　of　industry。　The　virtues　which　accompany　labour；　…　sobriety；　constancy；　economy　…　give　place　to　the　vices　of　idleness；　to　intemperance；　dissipation；　and　forgetfulness　of　the　future。　Trade；　industry；　activity；　are　regarded　with　contempt；　in　a　state　where　the　people　are　nothing；　whilst　all　distinction；　all　honours；　are　reserved　for　noble　indolence。　Favour；　intrigue；　flattery；　and　all　the　arts　of　courtiers；　which　debase　the　soul；　are　roads　to　fortune；　much　more　sure　and　rapid　than　strength　of　character；　bold　and　enterprising　activity；　or　a　spirit　of　speculation。　Intriguers　are　multiplied　daily；　they　regard　with　contempt　those　who　follow　the　only　honourable　path　to　fortune；　that　in　which　none　makes　progress　except　by　his　merit　or　his　labour。　　　　　One　cause　of　depopulation　is；　however；　presented；　which　lies　within　the　narrowest　range　of　political　economy。　The　progress　of　the　arts；　the　progress　of　industry；　and　hence　even　that　of　wealth　and　prosperity；　discover　economical　methods　of　producing　all　the　fruits　of　labour；　by　employing　a　smaller　number　of　workmen。　Animals　are　substituted　for　men　in　almost　all　the　details　of　agriculture；　and　machines　are　substituted　for　men　in　all　the　operations　of　manufactures。　So　long　as　a　nation　finds　within　its　reach　a　market　sufficiently　extensive　to　secure　for　all　its　productions　a　prompt　and　advantageous　circulation；　each　of　those　discoveries　is　an　advantage；　because；　instead　of　diminishing　the　number　of　workmen；　it　augments　the　mass　of　labour　and　its　produce。　A　nation　which　happens　to　originate　discoveries；　succeeds；　for　a　long　time；　in　extending　its　market　in　proportion　to　the　number　of　hands　set　free　by　every　new　invention。　It　immediately　employs　them　in　augmenting　the　produce；　which　the　discovery　promises　to　furnish　at　a　cheaper　rate。　But　a　period　arrives　at　last；　when　the　whole　civilized　world　is　but　one　market；　and　when　new　customers　cannot　be　found　in　new　nations。　The　demand　of　the　universal　market　is　then　a　precise　quantity；　which　the　different　industrious　nations　dispute　with　each　other；　if　one　furnish　more；　another　must　furnish　less。　The　total　sale　can　only　be　increased　by　the　progress　of　general　opulence；　or　because　conveniences；　formerly　confined　to　the　rich；　are　brought　within　the　reach　of　the　poor。　　　　　The　invention　of　the　stocking　frame；　by　means　of　which　one　man　does　as　much　work　as　a　hundred　did　before；　was　a　benefit　for　humanity；　only　because；　at　the　same　time；　the　progress　of　civilization；　of　population；　and　of　wealth；　increased　the　number　of　consumers。　New　counties　adopted　the　customs　of　Europe；　and　this　article　of　dress；　formerly　reserved　for　the　rich；　has　now　descended　to　the　poorest　classes。　But　if；　at　the　present　day；　some　new　discovery　should　enable　us；　by　a　single　stocking…frame；　to　do　the　work　which　ten　years　ago　was　done　by　a　hundred；　this　discovery　would　be　a　national　misfortune；　for　the　number　of　consumers　can　scarcely　increase；　and　it　would　then　be　the　number　of　producers　which　would　be　diminished。　　　　　This　example　may　show　us　the　general　rule：　Whenever　a　discovery；　economizing　labour；　brings　within　the　reach　of　a　poorer　class　what　was　previously　confined　to　the　rich；　it　extends　the　market；　and　whilst　benefiting　undertakers；　and　poor　consumers；　it　does　no　harm　to　workmen。　But　when　the　discovery　cannot　increase　the　number　of　consumers；　though　it　serves　them　at　a　cheaper　rate；　either　because　they　are　already　all　furnished；　or　because　the　thing　produced　can　never　be　useful　to　them；　however　low　it　may　fall；　…　the　discovery　becomes　a　human　calamity；　because　it　is　advantageous　but　to　a　certain　manufacturer；　and　that　only　at　the　expense　of　his　brethren；　or　it　benefits　a　single　nation；　and　that　only　at　the　expense　of　others。　This　national　benefit；　if　purchased　at　the　expense　of　wretchedness　and　famine　to　foreign　artisans；　would　not　in　itself　be　much　worth　coveting；　it　is；　besides；　very　far　from　being　certain。　From　the　progress　of　communication　between　different　states；　from　the　skill　of　manufacturers；　a　discovery　in　one　country　is　imitated　in　every　other　before　the　former　has　gained　any　great　profit　from　it。　　　　　It　will　doubtless　be　said；　that　whoever　introduces　a　saving　in　any　article　of　his　consumption；　preserving　still　the　same　revenue；　will　consume　what　he　saves　from　the　fall　of　price　in　such　and　such　an　article；　by　a　new　expenditure；　for　which　he　will　put　in　requisition　a　new　labour。　But　there　never　will　be　any　proportion　between　this　new　demand　and　the　labour　suspended　on　account　of　it。　　　　　On　one　hand；　consumers　make　use　of　goods　a　little　finer；　a　little　prettier；　at　the　same　price。　The　clothes　with　which　the　poor　workman　is　dressed；　are　a　little　superior　in　quality；　are　really　worth　a　little　more　than　those　which　covered　his　father；　at　the　expense　of　the　same　part　of　his　wages。　But　himself　does　not　perceive　this　advantage。　Decency；　which　according　to　this　station；　he　is　obliged　to　consult；　leaves　him　no　choice；　he　must　dress　like　his　equal