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〃Father of Translators。〃 He was one of the brightest intelligences of the
Middle Ages； and did a work of the first importance to science； through
the extraordinary variety of material he put in circulation。 Translations； not
only of the medical writers； but of an indiscriminate crowd of authors in
philosophy and general literature； came from his pen。 He furnished one of
the first translations of the famous 〃Almagest〃 of Ptolemy； which opened
the eyes of his contemporaries to the value of the Alexandrian
astronomy。＇18＇ Leclerc gives a list of seventy…one works from his hand。
＇18＇ For an account of that remarkable work see German translation by
Manitius； Leipzig； 1912。
Many of the translators of the period were Jews； and many of the
works were translated from Hebrew into Latin。 For years Arabic had been
the learned language of the Jews； and in a large measure it was through
them that the Arabic knowledge and the translations passed into South and
Central Europe。
The Arab writer whose influence on mediaeval thought was the most
profound was Averroes； the great commentator on Aristotle。
THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES
THE most striking intellectual phenomenon of the thirteenth century
is the rise of the universities。 The story of their foundation is fully stated in
Rashdall's great work （Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages； Oxford；
1895）。 Monastic and collegiate schools； seats of learning like Salernum；
student guilds as at Bologna； had tried to meet the educational needs of the
age。 The word 〃university〃 literally means an association； and was not at
first restricted to learned bodies。 The origin appears to have been in certain
guilds of students formed for mutual protection associated at some place
specially favorable for studythe attraction generally being a famous
teacher。 The University of Bologna grew up about guilds formed by
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THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
students of law； and at Paris； early in the twelfth century； there were
communities of teachers； chiefly in philosophy and theology。 In this way
arose two different types of mediaeval university。 The universities of
Northern Italy were largely controlled by students； who were grouped in
different 〃nations。〃 They arranged the lectures and had control of the
appointment of teachers。 On the other hand； in the universities founded on
the Paris model the masters had control of the studies； though the students；
also in nations； managed their own affairs。
Two universities have a special interest at this period in connection
with the development of medical studies； Bologna and Montpellier。 At the
former the study of anatomy was revived。 In the knowledge of the
structure of the human body no advance had been made for more than a
thousand yearssince Galen's day。 In the process of translation from
Greek to Syriac； from Syriac to Arabic； from Arabic to Hebrew； and from
Hebrew or Arabic to Latin； both the form and thought of the old Greek
writers were not infrequently confused and often even perverted； and
Galen's anatomy had suffered severely in the transmission。 Our earliest
knowledge of the teaching of medicine at Bologna is connected with a
contemporary of Dante； Taddeo Alderotti； who combined Arabian
erudition with the Greek spirit。 He occupied a position of extraordinary
prominence； was regarded as the first citizen of Bologna and a public
benefactor exempt from the payment of taxes。 That he should have
acquired wealth is not surprising if his usual fees were at the rate at which
he charged Pope Honorius IV； i。e。； two hundred florins a day； besides a
〃gratification〃 of six thousand florins。
The man who most powerfully influenced the study of medicine in
Bologna was Mundinus； the first modern student of anatomy。 We have
seen that at the school of Salernum it was decreed that the human body
should be dissected at least once every five years； but it was with the
greatest difficulty that permission was obtained for this purpose。 It seems
probable that under the strong influence of Taddeo there was an occasional
dissection at Bologna； but it was not until Mundinus （professor from 1306
to 1326） took the chair that the study of anatomy became popular。 The
bodies were usually those of condemned criminals； but in the year 1319
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THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MEDICINE
there is a record of a legal procedure against four medical students for
body…snatchingthe first record； as far as I know； of this gruesome
practice。 In 1316； Mundinus issued his work on anatomy； which served as
a text…book for more than two hundred years。 He quotes from Galen the
amusing reasons why a man should write a book： 〃Firstly； to satisfy his
own friends； secondly； to exercise his best mental powers； and thirdly； to
be saved from the oblivion incident to old age。〃 Scores of manuscripts of
his work must have existed； but they are now excessively rare in Italy。 The
book was first printed at Pavia in 1478； in a small folio without figures。 It
was very often reprinted in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries。 The
quaint illustration shows us the mediaeval method of teaching anatomy：
the lecturer sitting on a chair reading from Galen； while a barber surgeon；
or an 〃Ostensor；〃 opens the cavities of the body。
I have already referred to the study of medicine by women at
Salernum。 Their names are also early met with in the school of Bologna。
Mundinus is said to have had a valuable assistant； a young girl； Alessandra
Giliani； an enthusiastic dissector； who was the first to practice the injection
of the blood vessels with colored liquids。 She died； consumed by her
labors； at the early age of nineteen； and her monument is still to be seen。
Bologna honored its distinguished professors with magnificent tombs；
sixteen or seventeen of which； in a wonderful state of preservation； may
still be seen in the Civic Museum。 That of Mundinus also existsa
sepulc