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the spot if they can。 But if he escapes； the penalty resolves itself into a heavy fine； usually of two or more oxen。
A similar reluctance to mention the names of the dead is reported of peoples so widely separated from each other as the Samoyeds of Siberia and the Todas of Southern India； the Mongols of Tartary and the Tuaregs of the Sahara； the Ainos of Japan and the Akamba and Nandi of Eastern Africa； the Tinguianes of the Philippines and the inhabitants of the Nicobar Islands； of Borneo； of Madagascar； and of Tasmania。 In all cases； even where it is not expressly stated； the fundamental reason for this avoidance is probably the fear of the ghost。 That this is the real motive with the Tuaregs we are positively informed。 They dread the return of the dead man's spirit； and do all they can to avoid it by shifting their camp after a death； ceasing for ever to pronounce the name of the departed； and eschewing everything that might be regarded as an evocation or recall of his soul。 Hence they do not； like the Arabs； designate individuals by adding to their personal names the names of their fathers； they never speak of So…and…so； son of So…and…so； they give to every man a name which will live and die with him。 So among some of the Victorian tribes in Australia personal names were rarely perpetuated； because the natives believed that any one who adopted the name of a deceased person would not live long； probably his ghostly namesake was supposed to come and fetch him away to the spirit…land。
The same fear of the ghost； which moves people to suppress his old name； naturally leads all persons who bear a similar name to exchange it for another； lest its utterance should attract the attention of the ghost； who cannot reasonably be expected to discriminate between all the different applications of the same name。 Thus we are told that in the Adelaide and Encounter Bay tribes of South Australia the repugnance to mentioning the names of those who have died lately is carried so far； that persons who bear the same name as the deceased abandon it； and either adopt temporary names or are known by any others that happen to belong to them。 A similar custom prevails among some of the Queensland tribes； but the prohibition to use the names of the dead is not permanent； though it may last for many years。 In some Australian tribes the change of name thus brought about is permanent； the old name is laid aside for ever； and the man is known by his new name for the rest of his life； or at least until he is obliged to change it again for a like reason。 Among the North American Indians all persons； whether men or women； who bore the name of one who had just died were obliged to abandon it and to adopt other names； which was formally done at the first ceremony of mourning for the dead。 In some tribes to the east of the Rocky Mountains this change of name lasted only during the season of mourning； but in other tribes on the Pacific Coast of North America it seems to have been permanent。
Sometimes by an extension of the same reasoning all the near relations of the deceased change their names； whatever they may happen to be； doubtless from a fear that the sound of the familiar names might lure back the vagrant spirit to its old home。 Thus in some Victorian tribes the ordinary names of all the next of kin were disused during the period of mourning； and certain general terms； prescribed by custom； were substituted for them。 To call a mourner by his own name was considered an insult to the departed； and often led to fighting and bloodshed。 Among Indian tribes of North…western America near relations of the deceased often change their names under an impression that spirits will be attracted back to earth if they hear familiar names often repeated。 Among the Kiowa Indians the name of the dead is never spoken in the presence of the relatives； and on the death of any member of a family all the others take new names。 This custom was noted by Raleigh's colonists on Roanoke Island more than three centuries ago。 Among the Lengua Indians not only is a dead man's name never mentioned； but all the survivors change their names also。 They say that Death has been among them and has carried off a list of the living； and that he will soon come back for more victims； hence in order to defeat his fell purpose they change their names； believing that on his return Death； though he has got them all on his list； will not be able to identify them under their new names； and will depart to pursue the search elsewhere。 Nicobarese mourners take new names in order to escape the unwelcome attentions of the ghost； and for the same purpose they disguise themselves by shaving their heads so that the ghost is unable to recognise them。
Further； when the name of the deceased happens to be that of some common object； such as an animal； or plant； or fire； or water； it is sometimes considered necessary to drop that word in ordinary speech and replace it by another。 A custom of this sort； it is plain； may easily be a potent agent of change in language； for where it prevails to any considerable extent many words must constantly become obsolete and new ones spring up。 And this tendency has been remarked by observers who have recorded the custom in Australia； America； and elsewhere。 For example； with regard to the Australian aborigines it has been noted that the dialects change with almost every tribe。 Some tribes name their children after natural objects； and when the person so named dies； the word is never again mentioned； another word has therefore to be invented for the object after which the child was called。 The writer gives as an instance the case of a man whose name Karla signified fire； when Karla died； a new word for fire had to be introduced。 Hence； adds the writer； the language is always changing。 Again； in the Encounter Bay tribe of South Australia； if a man of the name of Ngnke； which means water； were to die； the whole tribe would be obliged to use some other word to express water for a considerable time after his decease。 The writer who records this custom surmises that it may explain the presence of a number of synonyms in the language of the tribe。 This conjecture is confirmed by what we know of some Victorian tribes whose speech comprised a regular set of synonyms to be used instead of the common terms by all members of a tribe in times of mourning。 For instance； if a man called Waa （ crow） departed this life； during the period of mourning for him nobody might call a crow a waa； everybody had to speak of the bird as a narrapart。 When a person who rejoiced in the title of Ringtail Opossum （weearn） had gone the way of all flesh； his sorrowing relations and the tribe at large were bound for a time to refer to ringtail opossums by the more sonorous name of manuungkuurt。 If the community were plunged in grief for the loss of a respected female who bore the honourable name of Turkey Bustard； the proper name for turkey bustards； which was barrim barrim； went out； and tillit tilliitsh came in。 And so mutatis mutandis with the names of Black Cockatoo； Grey Duck； Gigantic Crane； Kangaroo； Eagle； Dingo； and the rest。
A similar custom used to be constantly transforming the language of